Editing Titanium (section)

==Applications==
[[File:Titanzylinder.jpg|thumb|right|A titanium cylinder of quality "grade&nbsp;2"]]
Titanium is used in steel as an alloying element ([[ferro-titanium]]) to reduce [[crystallite|grain size]] and as a [[deoxidizer]], and in stainless steel to reduce carbon content.<ref name="EBC" /> Titanium is often alloyed with aluminium (to refine grain size), [[vanadium]], copper (to harden), [[iron]], [[manganese]], [[molybdenum]], and other metals.<ref name=ECE738>{{cite book |last=Hampel |first=Clifford A. |year=1968 |title=The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements |page=738 |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |isbn=978-0-442-15598-8}}</ref> Titanium mill products (sheet, plate, bar, wire, forgings, castings) find application in industrial, aerospace, recreational, and emerging markets. Powdered titanium is used in [[pyrotechnics]] as a source of bright-burning particles.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Mocella, Chris |author2=Conkling, John A. |year=2019 |title=Chemistry of Pyrotechnics|publisher=CRC Press |page=86 |isbn=978-1-351-62656-9}}</ref>

===Pigments, additives, and coatings===
[[File:Titanium(IV) oxide.jpg|thumb|alt=Watch glass on a black surface with a small portion of white powder|[[Titanium dioxide]] is the most commonly used compound of titanium.]]
About 95% of all titanium ore is destined for refinement into [[titanium dioxide]] ({{chem|TiO|2}}), an intensely white permanent [[pigment]] used in paints, paper, toothpaste, and plastics.<ref name="USGS">{{cite web |title=Titanium |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) |website=USGS Minerals Information |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/titanium/}}</ref> It is also used in cement, in gemstones, and as an optical opacifier in paper.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smook |first=Gary A. |year=2002 |title=Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologists |edition=3rd |publisher=Angus Wilde Publications |isbn=978-0-9694628-5-9 |page=223 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TgtFPgAACAAJ}}</ref> 

{{chem|TiO|2}} pigment is chemically inert, resists fading in sunlight, and is very opaque: it imparts a pure and brilliant white color to the brown or grey chemicals that form the majority of household plastics.<ref name=HistoryAndUse/> In nature, this compound is found in the minerals anatase, brookite, and rutile.<ref name=EBC/> Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperatures and marine environments.<ref name=HistoryAndUse/> Pure titanium dioxide has a very high [[refractive index|index of refraction]] and an [[optical dispersion]] higher than [[diamond]].<ref name=LANL/> Titanium dioxide is used in [[sunscreen]]s because it reflects and absorbs [[UV light]].<ref name=Stwertka1998/>

===Aerospace and marine===
[[File:A12-flying.jpg|thumb|[[Lockheed A-12]], first plane made of 93% titanium]]
Because titanium alloys have high [[tensile strength]] to density ratio,<ref name="TICE6th" /> high [[corrosion resistance]],<ref name=LANL/> fatigue resistance, high crack resistance,<ref name=Moiseyev>{{cite book |last=Moiseyev |first=Valentin N. |year=2006 |title=Titanium Alloys: Russian Aircraft and Aerospace Applications |publisher=Taylor and Francis, LLC |page=196 |isbn=978-0-8493-3273-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=legtmQEACAAJ}}</ref> and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without creeping, they are used in aircraft, armor plating, naval ships, spacecraft, and missiles.<ref name=LANL/><ref name=HistoryAndUse/> For these applications, titanium is alloyed with aluminium, zirconium, nickel,<ref name=Kramer-2013-07-05/> vanadium, and other elements to manufacture a variety of components including critical structural parts, [[landing gear]], [[firewall (engine)|firewalls]], exhaust ducts (helicopters), and hydraulic systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal produced is used in aircraft engines and frames.<ref name=Emsley2001p454/> The [[titanium 6AL-4V]] alloy accounts for almost 50% of all alloys used in aircraft applications.<ref>{{harvnb|Donachie|1988|p=13}}</ref>

The [[Lockheed A-12]] and the [[SR-71 Blackbird|SR-71 "Blackbird"]] were two of the first aircraft frames where titanium was used, paving the way for much wider use in modern military and commercial aircraft. A large amount of titanium mill products are used in the production of many aircraft, such as (following values are amount of raw mill products used, only a fraction of this ends up in the finished aircraft): 116&nbsp;metric tons are used in the [[Boeing 787]], 77 in the [[Airbus A380]], 59 in the [[Boeing 777]], 45 in the [[Boeing 747]], 32 in the [[Airbus A340]], 18 in the [[Boeing 737]], 18 in the [[Airbus A330]], and 12 in the [[Airbus A320]].<ref>{{cite book |editor=Froes, F.H. |year=2015 |title=Titanium Physical Metallurgy, Processing, and Applications |page=7 |isbn=978-1-62708-080-4 |publisher=[[ASM International (society)|ASM International]] }}</ref> In aero engine applications, titanium is used for rotors, compressor blades, hydraulic system components, and [[nacelle]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-10 |title=Titanium in Aerospace – Titanium |url=https://titaniumthemetal.org/blog/titanium-in-aerospace/ |access-date=2024-05-08 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Titanium Metal (Ti) / Sponge / Titanium Powder |url=https://www.lb7.uscourts.gov/documents/13cr5152.pdf |access-date=May 8, 2024 |website=www.lb7.uscourts.gov}}</ref> An early use in jet engines was for the [[Orenda Iroquois]] in the 1950s.{{bcn|date=January 2022}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Iroquois |year=1957 |website=Flight Global (archive) |page=412 |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1957/1957%20-%201324.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091213041629/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1957/1957%20-%201324.html |archive-date=13 December 2009 }}</ref>

Because titanium is resistant to corrosion by sea water, it is used to make propeller shafts, rigging, [[heat exchanger]]s in [[desalination plant]]s,<ref name="LANL" /> heater-chillers for salt water aquariums, fishing line and leader, and divers' knives. Titanium is used in the housings and components of ocean-deployed surveillance and monitoring devices for science and military. The former [[Soviet Union]] developed techniques for making submarines with hulls of titanium alloys,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007 |title=Unravelling a Cold War Mystery |url=https://www.cia.gov/resources/csi/static/the-ALFA-SSN.pdf |access-date=May 8, 2024 |website=[[CIA]]}}</ref> forging titanium in huge vacuum tubes.<ref name=Kramer-2013-07-05>{{cite news |author=Kramer, Andrew E. |date=5 July 2013 |title=Titanium Fills Vital Role for Boeing and Russia |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/06/business/global/titanium-fills-vital-role-for-boeing-and-russia.html |access-date=6 July 2013}}</ref>

===Industrial===
[[File:Titanium-stamps.jpg|thumb|Titanium [[seal (East Asia)|sealing stamps]]]]

Welded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels, valves) are used in the chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion resistance. Specific alloys are used in oil and gas downhole applications and [[nickel]] [[hydrometallurgy]] for their high strength (e. g.: titanium beta C alloy), corrosion resistance, or both. The [[pulp and paper industry]] uses titanium in process equipment exposed to corrosive media, such as [[sodium hypochlorite]] or wet chlorine gas (in the bleachery).<ref>{{harvnb|Donachie|1988|pp=11–16}}</ref> Other applications include [[ultrasonic welding]], [[wave soldering]],<ref>{{cite book |title= Industrial Application of Titanium and Zirconium |publisher=[[ASTM International]] |editor= Kleefisch, E.W. |isbn= 978-0-8031-0745-8 |location= West Conshohocken, PA |year=1981 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cX2HK0osYA4C}}</ref> and [[sputtering]] targets.<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of Hard Coatings |publisher=William Andrew Inc. |chapter=chapter&nbsp;8 |editor=Bunshah, Rointan F. |isbn=978-0-8155-1438-1 |location=Norwich, NY |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=daamnz8el2sC&pg=PA413 |year=2001}}</ref>

Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl<sub>4</sub>), a colorless liquid, is important as an intermediate in the process of making TiO<sub>2</sub> and is also used to produce the Ziegler–Natta catalyst. Titanium tetrachloride is also used to iridize glass and, because it fumes strongly in moist air, it is used to make smoke screens.<ref name="Stwertka1998" />

===Consumer and architectural===
[[File:Tweeter with Titanium membrane of loudspeaker box JBL TI 5000, 1990s.jpg|thumb|[[Tweeter]] loudspeaker driver with a membrane with 25 mm diameter made from titanium; from a [[JBL]] TI 5000 [[loudspeaker box]], {{circa|1997}}]]
Titanium metal is used in automotive applications, particularly in automobile and motorcycle racing where low weight and high strength and rigidity are critical.<ref>{{cite conference |author=Funatani, K. |date=9–12 October 2000 |title=Recent trends in surface modification of light metals §&nbsp;Metal matrix composite technologies |publication-date=2001 |conference=20th ASM Heat Treating Society Conference |book-title=Heat Treating, an International ... Symposium on Residual Stresses in the Heat Treatment Industry |editor1=Funatani, Kiyoshi |editor2=Totten, George E. |place=St.&nbsp;Louis, MO |publisher=[[ASM International (society)|ASM International]] |volume=1 & 2 |pages=138–144, esp.&nbsp;141 |isbn=978-0-87170-727-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4F1zYT4FHyMC}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|p= 141}} The metal is generally too expensive for the general consumer market, though some late model [[Chevrolet Corvette|Corvettes]] have been manufactured with titanium exhausts,<ref>{{cite web |title=Titanium exhausts |publisher=National Corvette Museum |year=2006 |url=http://www.iglou.com/corvette/specs/2001/exhaust.htm |access-date=26 December 2006  |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103075117/http://www.iglou.com/corvette/specs/2001/exhaust.htm |archive-date=3 January 2013}}</ref> and a [[GM small-block engine|Corvette Z06's LT4]] supercharged engine uses lightweight, solid titanium intake valves for greater strength and resistance to heat.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Compact powerhouse: Inside Corvette Z06's LT4 engine 650-hp supercharged 6.2L V-8 makes world-class power in more efficient package |date=20 August 2014 |publisher=[[General Motors]] |website=media.gm.com |url=http://media.gm.com/media/us/en/chevrolet/vehicles/corvette-z06/2015.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2014/Aug/0820-8speed/0820-compact-powerhouse.html}}</ref>

Titanium is used in many sporting goods: tennis rackets, golf clubs, lacrosse stick shafts; cricket, hockey, lacrosse, and football helmet grills, and bicycle frames and components. Although not a mainstream material for bicycle production, titanium bikes have been used by racing teams and [[Adventure Cycling|adventure cyclists]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Davis |first=Joseph R. |year=1998 |title=Metals Handbook |publisher=[[ASM International (society)|ASM International]] |isbn=978-0-87170-654-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/metalshandbook00davi/page/584 584] |url=https://archive.org/details/metalshandbook00davi |url-access=registration |via=[[Internet Archive]] (archive.org)}}</ref>

Titanium alloys are used in spectacle frames that are rather expensive but highly durable, long lasting, light weight, and cause no skin allergies. Titanium is a common material for backpacking cookware and eating utensils. Though more expensive than traditional steel or aluminium alternatives, titanium products can be significantly lighter without compromising strength. Titanium horseshoes are preferred to steel by [[farrier]]s because they are lighter and more durable.<ref name=Donachie2000>{{harvnb|Donachie|1988|pp=11, 255}}</ref>

[[File:El Guggenheim vizcaíno. (1454058701).jpg|thumb| Titanium cladding of [[Frank Gehry]]'s [[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao|Guggenheim Museum]], [[Bilbao]]]]
Titanium has occasionally been used in architecture. The {{convert|42.5|m|ft|adj=on|abbr=on}} [[Monument to Yuri Gagarin]], the first man to travel in space ({{coord|55|42|29.7|N|37|34|57.2|E|region:CN-62_type:landmark|display=inline}}), as well as the {{convert|110|m|ft|adj=on|abbr=on}} [[Monument to the Conquerors of Space]] on top of the [[Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics|Cosmonaut Museum]] in Moscow are made of titanium for the metal's attractive color and association with rocketry.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mike Gruntman|title=Blazing the Trail: The Early History of Spacecraft and Rocketry|page=457|isbn=978-1-56347-705-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XY9KXxF8OEC|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, VA|year=2004|author-link=Mike Gruntman}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41EqJFxjA4wC&pg=PA408|title=Titanium |chapter= Appearance Related Applications|isbn=978-3-540-71397-5|author1=Lütjering, Gerd|author2=Williams, James Case|date=12 June 2007|publisher=Springer }}</ref> The [[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao]] and the [[Cerritos Millennium Library]] were the first buildings in Europe and North America, respectively, to be sheathed in titanium panels.<ref name="Emsley2001p454">{{harvnb|Emsley|2001|p=454}}</ref> Titanium sheathing was used in the Frederic C. Hamilton Building in Denver, Colorado.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.designbuild-network.com/projects/dam/ |title=Denver Art Museum, Frederic C. Hamilton Building |access-date=26 December 2006 |publisher=SPG Media |year=2006}}</ref>

Because of titanium's superior strength and light weight relative to other metals (steel, stainless steel, and aluminium), and because of recent advances in metalworking techniques, its use has become more widespread in the manufacture of firearms. Primary uses include pistol frames and revolver cylinders. For the same reasons, it is used in the body of some laptop computers (for example, in [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s [[PowerBook G4]]).<ref>{{cite web|access-date=8 August 2009|url=http://www.everymac.com/systems/apple/powerbook_g4/stats/powerbook_g4_400.html|title=Apple PowerBook G4 400 (Original – Ti) Specs|work=everymac.com}}</ref><ref name=use/>

In 2023, Apple launched the [[iPhone 15 Pro]], which uses a titanium enclosure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Apple Announces iPhone 15 Pro Models With Titanium Enclosure |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/mobile/apple-announces-iphone-15-pro-models-with-titanium-enclosure/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=CNET |language=en}}</ref>

Some upmarket lightweight and corrosion-resistant tools, such as shovels, knife handles and flashlights, are made of titanium or titanium alloys.<ref name=use>{{cite book |pages=7–8 |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-12-815820-3 |publisher=Elsevier Science |title=Real-World Use of Titanium |author1=Qian, Ma |author2=Niinomi, Mitsuo}}</ref>

=== Jewelry ===

[[File:Anodized titanium table.jpg|thumb|right|Relation between voltage and color for anodized titanium]]
Because of its durability, titanium has become more popular for designer jewelry (particularly, [[titanium ring]]s).<ref name=Donachie2000/> Its inertness makes it a good choice for those with allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in environments such as swimming pools. Titanium is also [[Titanium gold|alloyed with gold]] to produce an alloy that can be marketed as [[Fineness|24-karat]] gold because the 1% of alloyed Ti is insufficient to require a lesser mark. The resulting alloy is roughly the hardness of 14-karat gold and is more durable than pure 24-karat gold.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://goldbulletin.org/assets/file/goldbulletin/downloads/Gafner_4_22.pdf |title=The development of 990 Gold-Titanium: its Production, use and Properties |author=Gafner, G. |journal=Gold Bulletin |year=1989 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=112–122 |doi=10.1007/BF03214709 |doi-access=free |s2cid=114336550 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129195740/http://goldbulletin.org/assets/file/goldbulletin/downloads/Gafner_4_22.pdf |archive-date=29 November 2010 }}</ref>

Titanium's durability, light weight, and dent and corrosion resistance make it useful for [[watch]] cases.<ref name="Donachie2000" /> Some artists work with titanium to produce sculptures, decorative objects and furniture.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=8 August 2009 |url=http://www.titanium-arts.com/home.html |title=Fine Art and Functional Works in Titanium and Other Earth Elements  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513171451/http://www.titanium-arts.com/home.html |archive-date=13 May 2008 }}</ref>

Titanium may be [[anodising|anodized]] to vary the thickness of the surface oxide layer, causing optical [[interference fringe]]s and a variety of bright colors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-a02-anodizing.htm |title=Electrochemistry Encyclopedia |publisher=Chemical Engineering Department, Case Western Reserve University, U.S.|author=Alwitt, Robert S. |year=2002 |access-date=30 December 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080702001336/http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-a02-anodizing.htm |archive-date=2 July 2008}}</ref> With this coloration and chemical inertness, titanium is a popular metal for [[body piercing]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doctorgoodskin.com/tp/bodypiercing/|work=doctorgoodskin.com |title=Body Piercing Safety |date=1 August 2006}}</ref>

Titanium has a minor use in dedicated non-circulating coins and medals. In 1999, Gibraltar released the world's first titanium coin for the millennium celebration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pobjoy.com/us/world-firsts|title=World Firsts|publisher=British Pobjoy Mint|access-date=11 November 2017|archive-date=26 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226055719/https://www.pobjoy.com/us/world-firsts|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Gold Coast Titans]], an Australian rugby league team, award a medal of pure titanium to their player of the year.<ref>{{cite news|last=Turgeon |first=Luke |title=Titanium Titan: Broughton immortalised |url=http://www.goldcoast.com.au/article/2007/09/20/2947_gold-coast-titans.html |newspaper=The Gold Coast Bulletin |date=20 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928082012/http://www.goldcoast.com.au/article/2007/09/20/2947_gold-coast-titans.html |archive-date=28 September 2013}}</ref>

===Medical===
{{Main|Titanium biocompatibility}}
Because titanium is [[biocompatibility|biocompatible]] (non-toxic and not rejected by the body), it has many medical uses, including surgical implements and implants, such as hip balls and sockets ([[joint replacement]]) and [[dental implant]]s that can stay in place for up to 20 years.<ref name="Emsley2001p452">{{harvnb|Emsley|2001|p=452}}</ref> The titanium is often alloyed with about 4% aluminium or 6% Al and 4% vanadium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.totaljoints.info/orthopaedic_metal_alloys.htm|title=Orthopaedic Metal Alloys|publisher=Totaljoints.info|access-date=27 September 2010}}</ref>
[[File:Titanium plaatje voor pols.jpg|thumb|Medical screws and plate used to repair wrist fractures. Scale is in centimeters.]]
Titanium has the inherent ability to [[osseointegration|osseointegrate]], enabling use in [[dental implants]] that can last for over 30 years. This property is also useful for [[internal fixator|orthopedic implant]] applications.<ref name="Emsley2001p452" /> These benefit from titanium's lower modulus of elasticity ([[Young's modulus]]) to more closely match that of the bone that such devices are intended to repair. As a result, skeletal loads are more evenly shared between bone and implant, leading to a lower incidence of bone degradation due to stress shielding and [[periprosthetic]] bone fractures, which occur at the boundaries of orthopedic implants. However, titanium alloys' stiffness is still more than twice that of bone, so adjacent bone bears a greatly reduced load and may deteriorate.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.fraunhofer.de/en/press/research-news/2010/09/titanium-foams-replace-injured-bones.jsp|title=Titanium foams replace injured bones|journal=Research News |date=1 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100904045008/http://www.fraunhofer.de/en/press/research-news/2010/09/titanium-foams-replace-injured-bones.jsp|access-date=27 September 2010|archive-date=4 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Lavine | first=Marc S. | editor-last=Vignieri | editor-first=Sacha | editor-last2=Smith | editor-first2=Jesse | title=Make no bones about titanium | journal=Science | volume=359 | issue=6372 | date=11 January 2018 | doi=10.1126/science.359.6372.173-f | pages=173.6–174| bibcode=2018Sci...359..173L | doi-access=free }}</ref>

Because titanium is non-[[ferromagnetic]], patients with titanium implants can be safely examined with [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (convenient for long-term implants). Preparing titanium for implantation in the body involves subjecting it to a high-temperature [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] arc which removes the surface atoms, exposing fresh titanium that is instantly oxidized.<ref name="Emsley2001p452" />

Modern advancements in additive manufacturing techniques have increased potential for titanium use in orthopedic implant applications.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Harun | first1=W.S.W. | last2=Manam | first2=N.S. | last3=Kamariah | first3=M.S.I.N. | last4=Sharif | first4=S. | last5=Zulkifly | first5=A.H. | last6=Ahmad | first6=I. | last7=Miura | first7=H. | title=A review of powdered additive manufacturing techniques for Ti-6al-4v biomedical applications | journal=Powder Technology |  volume=331 | year=2018 | doi=10.1016/j.powtec.2018.03.010 | pages=74–97| url=http://irep.iium.edu.my/64319/1/A%20review%20of%20powdered%20additive%20manufacturing%20techniques%20for%20Ti-6al-4v%20biomedical%20applications.pdf }}</ref> Complex implant scaffold designs can be 3D-printed using titanium alloys, which allows for more patient-specific applications and increased implant osseointegration.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Trevisan | first1=Francesco | last2=Calignano | first2=Flaviana | last3=Aversa | first3=Alberta | last4=Marchese | first4=Giulio | last5=Lombardi | first5=Mariangela | last6=Biamino | first6=Sara | last7=Ugues | first7=Daniele | last8=Manfredi | first8=Diego | year=2017 | title=Additive manufacturing of titanium alloys in the biomedical field: processes, properties and applications | journal=Journal of Applied Biomaterials & Functional Materials | volume=16 | issue=2 |pmid=28967051 | doi=10.5301/jabfm.5000371 | pages=57–67| s2cid=27827821 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

Titanium is used for the [[surgical instrument]]s used in [[image-guided surgery]], as well as wheelchairs, crutches, and any other products where high strength and low weight are desirable.<ref>{{Cite book |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-12-815820-3 |publisher=Elsevier Science |title=Real-World Use of Titanium |author1=Qian, Ma |author2=Niinomi, Mitsuo |pages=51, 128 }}</ref>

Titanium dioxide [[nanoparticle]]s are widely used in electronics and the delivery of [[pharmaceutical drug|pharmaceuticals]] and cosmetics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pinsino |first1=Annalisa |last2=Russo |first2=Roberta |last3=Bonaventura |first3=Rosa |last4=Brunelli |first4=Andrea |last5=Marcomini |first5=Antonio |last6=Matranga |first6=Valeria |date=28 September 2015 |title=Titanium dioxide nanoparticles stimulate sea urchin immune cell phagocytic activity involving TLR/p38 MAPK-mediated signalling pathway |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=5 |doi=10.1038/srep14492 |pmc=4585977 |pmid=26412401 |page=14492 |bibcode=2015NatSR...514492P}}</ref>

===Nuclear waste storage===
Because of its corrosion resistance, containers made of titanium have been studied for the long-term storage of nuclear waste. Containers lasting more than 100,000 years are thought possible with manufacturing conditions that minimize material defects.<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1515/CORRREV.2000.18.4-5.331 |title= Hydrogen Absorption and the Lifetime Performance of Titanium Nuclear Waste Containers |journal= Corrosion Reviews |volume= 18 |issue= 4–5 |year= 2000 |last1= Shoesmith |first1= D. W. |last2= Noel |first2= J. J. |last3= Hardie |first3= D. |last4= Ikeda |first4= B. M.|pages= 331–360 |s2cid= 137825823 }}</ref> A titanium "drip shield" could also be installed over containers of other types to enhance their longevity.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Proof of Safety at Yucca Mountain |journal=Science |year=2005|volume= 310 |issue=5747 |pages=447–448 |author1=Carter, L.J. |author2=Pigford, T.J. |doi=10.1126/science.1112786 |pmid=16239463 |s2cid=128447596}}</ref>