Editing Work design (section)

=== Individual strategies ===

==== Job crafting ====
{{See also|Job crafting}}
''Job crafting'' can be defined as the proactive changing the boundaries and conditions of the tasks, relationships, and meaning of a job.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Wrzesniewski|first1=Amy|last2=Dutton|first2=Jane E.|date=April 2001|title=Crafting a Job: Revisioning Employees as Active Crafters of Their Work|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/259118|journal=The Academy of Management Review|volume=26|issue=2|pages=179|doi=10.2307/259118|issn=0363-7425|jstor=259118}}</ref> These changes are not negotiated with the employer and may not even be noticed by the manager.<ref name=":11" /> Job crafting behaviours have been found to lead to a variety of positive work outcomes, including work engagement, job satisfaction, resilience, and thriving.<ref name=":8" />

==== Role innovation ====
''Role innovation'' occurs when an employee [[Proactivity|proactively]] redefines a work role by changing the mission or practice of the role.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Maanen|first1=J.|last2=Schein|first2=E. H.|date=1979|title=Toward a theory of organizational socialization|journal=Research in Organizational Behavior|volume=1|pages=209–298}}</ref> When work roles are defined by organizations they do not always adequately address the problems faced by the profession. When employees notice this, they can attempt to redefine the role through innovation, improving the resilience of the profession in handling future situations.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Tims|first1=Maria|last2=Bakker|first2=Arnold B.|date=2010-12-02|title=Job crafting: Towards a new model of individual job redesign|journal=SA Journal of Industrial Psychology|volume=36|issue=2|doi=10.4102/sajip.v36i2.841|issn=2071-0763|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Task revision ====
''Task revision'' is seen as a form of counter-role behavior in that it is about resistance to defective work procedures, such as inaccurate job descriptions and dysfunctional expectations.<ref name=":8" /> This may involves acting against the norms of the organization with the end goal of making corrections to procedures. It has been noted that task revision rarely occurs in work settings as this type of resistance is often seen as inappropriate by managers and employees alike.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Staw|first1=Barry M.|last2=Boettger|first2=Richard D.|date=September 1990|title=Task Revision: A Neglected Form of Work Performance|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/256580|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=33|issue=3|pages=534–559|doi=10.5465/256580|issn=0001-4273}}</ref> However, a work environment which is supportive of deviation from social norms could facilitate task revision.<ref name=":9" />

==== Voice ====
In the context of job redesign, ''voice'' refers to behaviours which emphasize challenging the [[status quo]] with the intention of improving the situation rather than merely criticizing.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=LePine|first1=Jeffrey A.|last2=Van Dyne|first2=Linn|date=1998|title=Predicting voice behavior in work groups.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83.6.853|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=83|issue=6|pages=853–868|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.83.6.853|issn=0021-9010}}</ref> This can be as simple as suggesting more effective ways of doing things within the organization. When individuals stand up and express innovating ideas, the organization may benefit from these fresh perspectives.<ref name=":8" /> Voice may be particularly important in organizations where change and innovation is necessary for survival.<ref name=":10" /> While the individual employee does not immediately benefit from this expression, successful innovations may lead to improved performance appraisals.<ref name=":8" />

==== Idiosyncratic deals ====
''Idiosyncratic deals'', also known as ''i-deals'', is a concept developed by American organizational psychologist [[Denise Rousseau]] which refers to individualized work arrangements negotiated proactively by an employee with their employer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lai|first1=Lei|last2=Rousseau|first2=Denise M.|last3=Chang|first3=Klarissa Ting Ting|date=2009|title=Idiosyncratic deals: Coworkers as interested third parties.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0013506|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=94|issue=2|pages=547–556|doi=10.1037/a0013506|pmid=19271808|issn=1939-1854}}</ref> The most common forms of i-deals are flexible working hours and opportunities for personal development.<ref name=":8" /> However, also other forms of Idiosyncratic deals are known from previous research, such as task and work responsibilities, workload reduction, location flexibility, and financial Incentives <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/workar/article/7/3/240/6207921 |title= Matching the Pieces: The Presence of Idiosyncratic Deals and Their Impact on Retirement Preferences Among Older Workers}}</ref> These arrangements may be put in place because an employer values the negotiating employee, and by granting the i-deal the likelihood of retaining the employee is increased.<ref name=":8" /> This can be seen as a [[Win-win game|win-win]] scenario for both parties.

==== Personal initiative ====
{{main|Personal initiative}}
''Personal initiative'' refers to self-starting behaviours by an employee that are consistent with the mission of the organization, has a long term focus, are goal directed and action oriented, and are persistent in the face of difficulty.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frese|first1=Michael|last2=Fay|first2=Doris|date=January 2001|title=4. Personal initiative: An active performance concept for work in the 21st century|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0191-3085(01)23005-6|journal=Research in Organizational Behavior|volume=23|pages=133–187|doi=10.1016/s0191-3085(01)23005-6|issn=0191-3085}}</ref> Additionally, these behaviours typically go beyond what is required of the employee in their work role.<ref name=":8" />