Editing Artificial turf (section)

===Pollution and associated health risks===
{{Further|Artificial turf–cancer hypothesis}}
Some artificial turf uses infill such as silicon sand, but most uses granulated [[rubber]], referred to as "[[crumb rubber]]". Granulated rubber can be made from [[Tire recycling|recycled car tires]] and may carry [[heavy metals]], [[Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances|PFAS chemicals]], and other chemicals of environmental concern. The [[synthetic fiber]]s of artificial turf are also subject to degradation. Thus chemicals from artificial turfs [[Leaching (chemistry)|leach]] into the environment, and artificial turf is a source of [[Microplastics#Effects on the environment|microplastics]] [[plastic pollution|pollution]] and [[rubber pollution]] in [[Air pollution|air]], [[Water pollution|fresh-water]], [[marine pollution|sea]] and [[soil pollution|soil]] environments.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lerner |first1=Sharon |date=October 8, 2019 |title=Toxic PFAS Chemicals Found in Artificial Turf |work=The Intercept |url=https://theintercept.com/2019/10/08/pfas-chemicals-artificial-turf-soccer/ |access-date=January 4, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Celeiro |first1=Maria |last2=Armada |first2=Daniel |last3=Ratola |first3=Nuno |last4=Dagnac |first4=Thierry |last5=de Boer |first5=Jacob |last6=Llompart |first6=Maria |date=May 1, 2021 |title=Evaluation of chemicals of environmental concern in crumb rubber and water leachates from several types of synthetic turf football pitches |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653520328058 |journal=Chemosphere|volume=270 |pages=128610 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128610 |pmid=33121811 |bibcode=2021Chmsp.27028610C |hdl=1871.1/b88f1b78-db15-4e7c-9129-91bc833e35e3 |s2cid=226206761 |issn=0045-6535|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last1=Chiba |first1=Rihito |last2=Fujinuma |first2=Ryosuke |last3=Yoshitomi |first3=Tomoyasu |last4=Shimizu |first4=Yasuo |last5=Kobayashi |first5=Makito |date=January 24, 2023 |title=Ingestion of rubber tips of artificial turf fields by goldfish |journal=Scientific Reports|volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=1344 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-28672-3 |pmid=36693897 |pmc=9873930 |bibcode=2023NatSR..13.1344C |issn=2045-2322}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=February 27, 2017 |title=Microplastic Pollution from Artificial Grass – A Field Guide |url=http://www.kimointernational.org/news/microplastic-pollution-from-artificial-grass-a-field-guide/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419193327/http://www.kimointernational.org/news/microplastic-pollution-from-artificial-grass-a-field-guide/ |archive-date=April 19, 2017 |access-date=April 19, 2017 |publisher=KIMO}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Artificial Turf. Why it is not the answer |url=http://www.selvainternational.org/artificialturf.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803035027/http://selvainternational.org/artificialturf.htm |archive-date=August 3, 2016 |access-date=April 19, 2017 |publisher=SELVA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=February 3, 2017 |title=Microplastics in agricultural soils: A reason to worry? |url=http://www.niva.no/en/microplastics-in-agricultural-soils-a-reason-to-worry |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419205543/http://www.niva.no/en/microplastics-in-agricultural-soils-a-reason-to-worry |archive-date=April 19, 2017 |access-date=April 19, 2017 |publisher=Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) |quote=Microplastics are increasingly seen as an environmental problem of global proportions. While the focus to date has been on microplastics in the ocean and their effects on marine life, microplastics in soils have largely been overlooked. Researchers are concerned about the lack of knowledge regarding potential consequences of microplastics in agricultural landscapes from application of sewage sludge.}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cheng H, Hu Y, Reinhard M |year=2014 |title=Environmental and health impacts of artificial turf: a review. |url=https://www.town.boxford.ma.us/sites/g/files/vyhlif321/f/uploads/turf_info_-_enviro_science.pdf |journal=Environ Sci Technol |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=2114–29 |doi=10.1021/es4044193 |pmid=24467230 |quote=The major concerns stem from the infill material that is typically derived from scrap tires. Tire rubber crumb contains a range of organic contaminants and heavy metals that can volatilize into the air and/or leach into the percolating rainwater, thereby posing a potential risk to the environment and human health. |archive-date=March 29, 2024 |access-date=July 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329133641/https://www.town.boxford.ma.us/sites/g/files/vyhlif321/f/uploads/turf_info_-_enviro_science.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=July 2024}} In Norway, Sweden, and at least some other places, the rubber granulate from artificial turf infill constitutes the second largest source of microplastics in the environment after the [[tire wear|tire]] and [[road wear]] particles that make up a large portion of the fine [[road debris]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kole |first1=Pieter Jan |last2=Löhr |first2=Ansje J. |last3=Van Belleghem |first3=Frank |last4=Ragas |first4=Ad |last5=Kole |first5=Pieter Jan |last6=Löhr |first6=Ansje J. |last7=Van Belleghem |first7=Frank G. A. J. |last8=Ragas |first8=Ad M. J. |date=October 20, 2017 |title=Wear and Tear of Tyres: A Stealthy Source of Microplastics in the Environment |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1265 |doi=10.3390/ijerph14101265 |pmc=5664766 |pmid=29053641 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bø |first1=S M |last2=Bohne |first2=R A |last3=Aas |first3=B |last4=Hansen |first4=L M |date=November 1, 2020 |title=Material flow analysis for Norway's artificial turfs |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=588 |issue=4 |pages=042068 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/588/4/042068 |bibcode=2020E&ES..588d2068B |s2cid=229516855 |issn=1755-1307|doi-access=free |hdl=11250/2724609 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=March 29, 2016 |title=Tire wear foremost source of microplastics |url=http://www.ivl.se/english/startpage/top-menu/pressroom/press-releases/press-releases---arkiv/2016-03-29-tire-wear-foremost-source-of-microplastics.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419195015/http://www.ivl.se/english/startpage/top-menu/pressroom/press-releases/press-releases---arkiv/2016-03-29-tire-wear-foremost-source-of-microplastics.html |archive-date=April 19, 2017 |access-date=April 19, 2017 |publisher=IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute |quote=researchers have ranked the sources of microplastic particles by size. The amount of microplastic particles emitted by traffic is estimated to 13 500 tonnes per year. Artificial turf ranks as the second largest source of emissions and is responsible for approximately 2300-3900 tonnes per year.}}</ref> As early as 2007, Environment and Human Health, Inc., a lobby-group, proposed a moratorium on the use of ground-up rubber tires in fields and playgrounds based on health concerns;<ref name="Brown">{{Cite report |url=http://www.ehhi.org/reports/turf/turf_report07.pdf |title=Artificial Turf |last=Brown, Sc.D. |first=David R. |year=2007 |publisher=The Board of Environment & Human Health, Inc |access-date=December 21, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410113457/http://www.ehhi.org/reports/turf/turf_report07.pdf |archive-date=April 10, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> in September 2022, the [[European Commission]] made a draft proposal to restrict the use of microplastic granules as infill in sports fields.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 23, 2022 |title=COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) …/… of XXX amending Annex XVII to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) as regards synthetic polymer microparticles |url=https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/comitology-register/screen/documents/083921/1/consult?lang=en |access-date=February 16, 2023 |website=The European Commission}}</ref>

What is less clear is how likely this pollution is in practice to harm humans or other organisms and whether these environmental costs outweigh the benefits of artificial turf, with many scientific papers and government agencies (such as the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]) calling for more research.<ref name="Weeks" /> A 2018 study published in ''[[Water, Air, & Soil Pollution]]'' analyzed the chemicals found in samples of tire crumbs, some used to install school athletic fields, and identified 92 chemicals only about half of which had ever been studied for their health effects and some of which are known to be carcinogenic or irritants. It stated "caution would argue against use of these materials where human exposure is likely, and this is especially true for playgrounds and athletic playing fields where young people may be affected".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Benoit G & Demars S |date=2018 |title=Evaluation of organic and inorganic compounds extractable by multiple methods from commercially available crumb rubber mulch. |journal=Water, Air, & Soil Pollution |volume=229 |issue=3 |pages=64 |bibcode=2018WASP..229...64B |doi=10.1007/s11270-018-3711-7 |s2cid=103861679}}</ref> Conversely, a 2017 study in ''Sports Medicine'' argued that "regular physical activity during adolescence and early adulthood helps prevent cancer later in life. Restricting the use or availability of all-weather year-round synthetic fields and thereby potentially reducing exercise could, in the long run, actually increase cancer incidence, as well as cardiovascular disease and other chronic illnesses."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bleyer |first=Archie |date=December 1, 2017 |title=Synthetic Turf Fields, Crumb Rubber, and Alleged Cancer Risk |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0735-x |journal=Sports Medicine|volume=47 |issue=12 |pages=2437–2441 |doi=10.1007/s40279-017-0735-x |pmid=28493060 |s2cid=46183771 |issn=1179-2035|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The possibility that carcinogenic substances in artificial turf could increase risks of human cancer (the [[artificial turf–cancer hypothesis]]) gained a particularly high profile in the first decades of the twenty-first century and attracted extensive study, with scientific reports around 2020 finding cancer-risks in modern artificial turf negligible.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Granules and mulches on sports pitches and playgrounds – ECHA |url=https://echa.europa.eu/hot-topics/granules-mulches-on-pitches-playgrounds |access-date=July 1, 2023 |website=echa.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Perkins |first1=AN |last2=Inayat-Hussain |first2=SH |last3=Deziel |first3=NC |display-authors=etal |date=2019 |title=Evaluation of potential carcinogenicity of organic chemicals in synthetic turf crumb rubber |journal=Environmental Research |volume=169 |pages=163–172 |bibcode=2019ER....169..163P |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2018.10.018 |pmc=6396308 |pmid=30458352}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pronk |first1=Marja E. J. |last2=Woutersen |first2=Marjolijn |last3=Herremans |first3=Joke M. M. |date=May 2020 |title=Synthetic turf pitches with rubber granulate infill: are there health risks for people playing sports on such pitches? |journal=Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology|volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=567–584 |doi=10.1038/s41370-018-0106-1 |pmid=30568187 |pmc=7181390 |bibcode=2020JESEE..30..567P |issn=1559-064X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=Klaus |last2=Bierwisch |first2=Anne |last3=Kaiser |first3=Eva |date=May 20, 2020 |title=ERASSTRI – European risk assessment study on synthetic turf rubber infill – Part 3: Exposure and risk characterisation |journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=718 |pages=137721 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137721 |pmid=32173010 |bibcode=2020ScTEn.71837721S |s2cid=212729483 |issn=0048-9697|doi-access=free }}</ref> But concerns have extended to other human-health risks, such as [[endocrine disruption]] that might affect early puberty, obesity, and children's attention spans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Armada |first1=Daniel |last2=Llompart |first2=Maria |last3=Celeiro |first3=Maria |last4=Garcia-Castro |first4=Pablo |last5=Ratola |first5=Nuno |last6=Dagnac |first6=Thierry |last7=de Boer |first7=Jacob |date=March 15, 2022 |title=Global evaluation of the chemical hazard of recycled tire crumb rubber employed on worldwide synthetic turf football pitches |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721076208 |journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=812 |pages=152542 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152542 |pmid=34952075 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.81252542A |s2cid=245432545 |issn=0048-9697|hdl=10347/27898 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Colon |first=I |year=2000 |title=Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=108 |issue=9 |pages=895–900 |doi=10.1289/ehp.108-2556932 |pmc=2556932 |pmid=11017896}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Newbold |first=RR |year=2009 |title=Environmental estrogens and obesity |journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology |volume=304 |issue=1–2 |pages=84–89 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2009.02.024 |pmc=2682588 |pmid=19433252}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grun |first=F. |date=2009 |title=Endocrine disruptors as obesogens |journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology |volume=304 |issue=1–2 |pages=19–29 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2009.02.018 |pmc=2713042 |pmid=19433244}}</ref> Potential harm to fish<ref name="auto"/> and earthworm<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pochron |first1=Sharon T. |last2=Fiorenza |first2=Andrew |last3=Sperl |first3=Cassandra |last4=Ledda |first4=Brianne |last5=Lawrence Patterson |first5=Charles |last6=Tucker |first6=Clara C. |last7=Tucker |first7=Wade |last8=Ho |first8=Yuwan Lisa |last9=Panico |first9=Nicholas |date=April 2017 |title=The response of earthworms ( Eisenia fetida ) and soil microbes to the crumb rubber material used in artificial turf fields |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0045653517301108 |journal=Chemosphere|volume=173 |pages=557–562 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.01.091|pmid=28142114 |bibcode=2017Chmsp.173..557P |url-access=subscription }}</ref> populations has also been shown.

A study for the [[New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection]] analyzed lead and other metals in dust kicked into the air by physical activity on five artificial turf fields. The results suggest that even low levels of activity on the field can cause particulate matter containing these chemicals to get into the air where it can be inhaled and be harmful. The authors state that since no level of lead exposure is considered safe for children, "only a comprehensive mandated testing of fields can provide assurance that no health hazard on these fields exists from lead or other metals used in their construction and maintenance."<ref>Shalat SL. An evaluation of potential exposures to lead and other metals as the result of aerosolized particulate matter from artificial turf playing fields. 2011. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. http://www.nj.gov/dep/dsr/publications/artificial-turf-report.pdf</ref>