Editing History of science (section)

==Classical antiquity and Greco-Roman science==
{{Further|History of science in classical antiquity}}
The contributions of the Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians in the areas of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine had entered and shaped [[Ancient Greek philosophy|Greek]] [[natural philosophy]] of [[classical antiquity]], whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the [[Universe|physical world]] based on natural causes.<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/><ref name="Grant2007a"/> Inquiries were also aimed at such practical goals such as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses. The ancient people who were considered the first ''[[scientists]]'' may have thought of themselves as ''natural philosophers'', as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, [[physician]]s), or as followers of a [[Religion|religious tradition]] (for example, [[Asclepeion|temple healers]]).

===Pre-socratics===
The earliest [[List of Greek philosophers|Greek philosophers]], known as the [[pre-Socratics]],<ref>{{harvnb|Sambursky|1974|pp=3, 37}} called the pre-Socratics the transition from ''[[Mythology|mythos]]'' to ''[[logos]]''</ref> provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered [[cosmos]] in which we live come to be?"<ref>[[F.M. Cornford]], ''Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought'', (Gloucester, Massachusetts, Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159.</ref> The pre-Socratic philosopher [[Thales]] (640–546 BCE) of [[Miletus]],<ref name="NYT-20240406">{{cite news |last=Broad |first=William J. |title=The Eclipse That Ended a War and Shook the Gods Forever – Thales, a Greek philosopher 2,600 years ago, is celebrated for predicting a famous solar eclipse and founding what came to be known as science. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/06/science/eclipse-prediction-ancient-greece-thales.html |date=6 April 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20240406100505/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/06/science/eclipse-prediction-ancient-greece-thales.html |archivedate=6 April 2024 }}</ref> identified by later authors such as Aristotle as the first of the [[Ionian School (philosophy)|Ionian philosophers]],<ref name= "lindberg2007a"/> postulated non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon.<ref>Arieti, James A. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=L0w6kvdKJ8QC&dq=thales+earthquakes&pg=PA44 Philosophy in the ancient world: an introduction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404032051/https://books.google.com/books?id=L0w6kvdKJ8QC&dq=thales+earthquakes&pg=PA44 |date=4 April 2023 }}'', p. 45. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. 386 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-7425-3329-5}}.</ref> Thales' student [[Pythagoras]] of [[Samos]] founded the [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagorean school]], which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape.<ref name="dicks">{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D.R. |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/72 72–198] |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |publisher=Cornell University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/72 }}</ref> [[Leucippus]] (5th century BCE) introduced [[atomism]], the theory that all [[matter]] is made of indivisible, imperishable units called [[atoms]]. This was greatly expanded on by his pupil [[Democritus]] and later [[Epicurus]].

===Natural philosophy===
[[File:Plato's Academy mosaic from Pompeii.jpg|thumb|[[Plato's Academy]]. 1st century [[mosaic]] from [[Pompeii]]]]
[[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of [[deductive reasoning]] was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the [[Platonic Academy]] in 387 BCE, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here," and also turned out many notable philosophers. Plato's student Aristotle introduced [[empiricism]] and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method.<ref>{{cite book |first=De Lacy |last=O'Leary |author-link=De Lacy O'Leary |year=1949 |title=How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs |url=https://archive.org/details/howgreeksciencep0000olea |url-access=registration |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul  |isbn=978-0-7100-1903-5}}</ref> Aristotle also produced [[Aristotle's biology|many biological writings]] that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals on [[Lesbos]], classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |title-link=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4 |page=7–}}</ref> Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced subsequent [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|Islamic]] and [[European science in the Middle Ages|European]] scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>{{cite SEP|url-id=aristotle-influence|title=Aristotle's Influence|date=2018|edition=Spring 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |title=Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction |date=1982 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=86 |isbn=978-0-19-285408-7}}</ref>

Aristotle also contributed to theories of the elements and the cosmos. He believed that the [[Astronomical object|celestial bodies]] (such as the planets and the Sun) had something called an [[unmoved mover]] that put the celestial bodies in motion. Aristotle tried to explain everything through mathematics and physics, but sometimes explained things such as the motion of celestial bodies through a higher power such as God. Aristotle did not have the technological advancements that would have explained the motion of celestial bodies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aristotle |title="De Caelo" [On the Heavens] |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |date=7 January 2009 |location=Translated by J. L. Stocks |pages=279 a17-30}}</ref> In addition, Aristotle had many views on the elements. He believed that everything was derived of the elements earth, water, air, fire, and lastly the [[Aether (classical element)|Aether]]. The Aether was a celestial element, and therefore made up the matter of the celestial bodies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frede |first=Dorothea |date=1976 |title=On the Elements: Aristotle's Early Cosmology |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/hph.2008.0115 |journal=Journal of the History of Philosophy |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=227–229 |doi=10.1353/hph.2008.0115 |s2cid=144547689 |via=Project MUSE|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The elements of earth, water, air and fire were derived of a combination of two of the characteristics of hot, wet, cold, and dry, and all had their inevitable place and motion. The motion of these elements begins with earth being the closest to "the Earth," then water, air, fire, and finally Aether. In addition to the makeup of all things, Aristotle came up with theories as to why things did not return to their natural motion. He understood that water sits above earth, air above water, and fire above air in their natural state. He explained that although all elements must return to their natural state, the human body and other living things have a constraint on the elements – thus not allowing the elements making one who they are to return to their natural state.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Monte |date=2004 |title=Review of The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements, Helen S. Lang |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/432288 |journal=Isis |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=687–688 |doi=10.1086/432288 |jstor=10.1086/432288 |issn=0021-1753 |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204052419/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/432288 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in [[anatomy]], [[zoology]], [[botany]], [[mineralogy]], [[geography]], [[mathematics]] and [[astronomy]]; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research.<ref>[[G.E.R. Lloyd]], ''Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle'', (New York: W.W. Norton, 1970), pp. 144–146.</ref><ref name="NYT-20240406" /> In the [[Hellenistic age]] scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations.<ref>[[G. E. R. Lloyd|Lloyd, G. E. R.]]  ''Greek Science after Aristotle''. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, 1973.  {{ISBN|0-393-00780-4}}, p. 177.</ref> Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Hellenistic philosophy|Hellenistic philosophers]], to medieval [[Early Islamic philosophy|Muslim philosophers]] and [[Islamic science|scientists]], to the European [[Renaissance]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], to the secular [[science]]s of the modern day.
Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the [[Socratic method]] did, along with the idea of [[Substantial form|Forms]], give great advances in geometry, [[logic]], and the natural sciences. According to [[Benjamin Farrington]], former professor of [[Classics]] at [[Swansea University]]:
:"Men were weighing for thousands of years before [[Archimedes]] worked out the laws of equilibrium; they must have had practical and intuitional knowledge of the principals involved. What Archimedes did was to sort out the theoretical implications of this practical knowledge and present the resulting body of knowledge as a logically coherent system."

and again:

:"With astonishment we find ourselves on the threshold of modern science. Nor should it be supposed that by some trick of translation the extracts have been given an air of modernity. Far from it. The vocabulary of these writings and their style are the source from which our own vocabulary and style have been derived."<ref>''Greek Science'', many editions, such as the paperback by Penguin Books. Copyrights in 1944, 1949, 1953, 1961, 1963. The first quote above comes from Part 1, Chapter 1; the second, from Part 2, Chapter 4.</ref>

===Greek astronomy===

[[File:Antikythera mechanism.svg|thumb|upright|right | Schematic of the [[Antikythera mechanism]] (150–100 BCE).]]

The astronomer [[Aristarchus of Samos]] was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the [[Solar System]], while the geographer [[Eratosthenes]] accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. [[Hipparchus]] (c. 190&nbsp;– c. 120 BCE) produced the first systematic [[Timeline of astronomical maps, catalogs, and surveys|star catalog]]. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and [[engineering]] is impressively shown by the [[Antikythera mechanism]] (150–100 BCE), an [[analog computer]] for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical [[astronomical clock]]s appeared in Europe.<ref name=insearchoflosttime>{{cite journal | last1=Marchant | first1=Jo | year=2006 | title=In search of lost time | journal=Nature | volume=444 | issue=7119| pages=534–538 | doi=10.1038/444534a | pmid=17136067 | bibcode=2006Natur.444..534M | doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Hellenistic medicine===
There was not a defined societal structure for healthcare during the age of Hippocrates.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kleisiaris CF, Sfakianakis C, Papathanasiou IV. Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal. J Med Ethics Hist Med. 2014 Mar 15;7:6. PMID 25512827; PMCID: PMC4263393.</ref> At that time, society was not organized and knowledgeable as people still relied on pure religious reasoning to explain illnesses.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Hippocrates introduced the first healthcare system based on science and clinical protocols.<ref name="Kleisiaris 6">{{Cite journal |last1=Kleisiaris |first1=Christos F. |last2=Sfakianakis |first2=Chrisanthos |last3=Papathanasiou |first3=Ioanna V. |date=2014-03-15 |title=Health care practices in ancient Greece: The Hippocratic ideal |journal=Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine |volume=7 |pages=6 |issn=2008-0387 |pmc=4263393 |pmid=25512827}}</ref> Hippocrates' theories about physics and medicine helped pave the way in creating an organized medical structure for society.<ref name="Kleisiaris 6"/> In [[medicine]], [[Hippocrates]] (c. 460–370 BCE) and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions and developed the [[Hippocratic Oath]] for physicians, still relevant and in use today. Hippocrates' ideas are expressed in [[Hippocratic Corpus|The Hippocratic Corpus]]. The collection notes descriptions of medical philosophies and how disease and lifestyle choices reflect on the physical body.<ref name="Kleisiaris 6"/> Hippocrates influenced a Westernized, professional relationship among physician and patient.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeHart |first=Scott M. |title=Hippocratic Medicine and the Greek Body Image |journal=Perspectives on Science |year=1999 |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=349–382 |doi=10.1162/posc.1999.7.3.349 |s2cid=57571190 |issn=1063-6145|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Hippocrates]] is also known as "the Father of Medicine".<ref name="Kleisiaris 6"/> [[Herophilos]] (335–280 BCE) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the [[nervous system]]. [[Galen]] (129&nbsp;– c. 200 CE) performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye [[surgery|surgeries]]— that were not tried again for almost two millennia.

===Greek mathematics===
[[File:Oxyrhynchus papyrus with Euclid's Elements.jpg|thumb|One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's ''Elements'', found at [[Oxyrhynchus]] and dated to c. 100 CE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html |title=One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid |author=Casselman, Bill |author-link=Bill Casselman (mathematician) |publisher=University of British Columbia |access-date=26 September 2008 |url-status=live |archive-date=4 June 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120604095737/http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html}}</ref>]]
[[File:Archimedes pi.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5<!--fmt low-aspect image-->|Archimedes used the [[method of exhaustion]] to approximate the value of [[pi|π]].]]
In [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Hellenistic Egypt]], the mathematician [[Euclid]] laid down the foundations of [[mathematical rigor]] and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his [[Euclid's elements|''Elements'']], considered the most influential textbook ever written.<ref name="Boyer Influence of the Elements">{{cite book |last=Boyer |author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer |title=A History of Mathematics |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye |chapter-url-access=registration |year=1991|chapter=Euclid of Alexandria|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/119 119]|publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0471543978 |quote=The ''Elements'' of Euclid not only was the earliest major Greek mathematical work to come down to us, but also the most influential textbook of all times. [...]The first printed versions of the ''Elements'' appeared at Venice in 1482, one of the very earliest of mathematical books to be set in type; it has been estimated that since then at least a thousand editions have been published. Perhaps no book other than the Bible can boast so many editions, and certainly no mathematical work has had an influence comparable with that of Euclid's ''Elements''.}}</ref> [[Archimedes]], considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time,<ref>{{cite book |last=Calinger |first=Ronald |title=A Contextual History of Mathematics |year=1999 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0-02-318285-3 |page=150 |quote=Shortly after Euclid, compiler of the definitive textbook, came Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287–212 BC.), the most original and profound mathematician of antiquity. }}</ref> is credited with using the [[method of exhaustion]] to calculate the [[area]] under the arc of a [[parabola]] with the [[Series (mathematics)|summation of an infinite series]], and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of [[pi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=A history of calculus |author1=O'Connor, J.J. |author2=Robertson, E.F. |publisher=[[University of St Andrews]] |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus.html |date=February 1996 |access-date=7 August 2007 |archive-date=15 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715191704/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_rise_of_calculus.html |url-status=live }}</ref> He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of [[Fluid statics|hydrostatics]], [[statics]], and the explanation of the principle of the [[lever]].

===Other developments===
[[Theophrastus]] wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] and looking at minerals in terms of their properties, such as [[hardness]]. [[Pliny the Elder]] produced one of the largest [[encyclopedia]]s of the natural world in 77 CE, and was a successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the [[octahedral]] shape of the [[diamond]] and noted that diamond dust is used by [[engraver]]s to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of [[crystal]] shape is a precursor to modern [[crystallography]], while notes on other minerals presages mineralogy. He recognizes other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the [[crystal habit]] with the work of [[lapidaries]]. Pliny was the first to show [[amber]] was a resin from pine trees, because of trapped insects within them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book=37#note92|title=Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PRECIOUS STONES.|website=perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 |last1=King
 |first1=Rachel
 |title=Amber: From Antiquity to Eternity
 |publisher=Reaktion Books
 |isbn=9781789145922
 |page=107
 |date=29 August 2022
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qEt7EAAAQBAJ&dq=pliny+the+elder+amber+gnats&pg=PA107}}</ref>

The development of archaeology has its roots in history and with those who were interested in the past, such as kings and queens who wanted to show past glories of their respective nations. The 5th-century-BCE [[Greek historiography|Greek historian]] [[Herodotus]] was the first scholar to systematically study the past and perhaps the first to examine artifacts.

===Greek scholarship under Roman rule===
During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as [[Polybius]], [[Livy]] and [[Plutarch]] documented the rise of the [[Roman Republic]], and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like [[Julius Caesar]], Cicero, and others provided examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.

The [[Greece in the Roman era|Roman conquest of Greece]] did not diminish learning and culture in the Greek provinces.<ref name= "lindberg2007g">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Roman and early medieval science | title = The Beginnings of Western Science| pages = 132–162 | edition = 2nd | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> On the contrary, the appreciation of Greek achievements in literature, philosophy, politics, and the arts by Rome's [[upper class]] coincided with the increased prosperity of the [[Roman Empire]]. Greek settlements had existed in Italy for centuries and the ability to read and speak Greek was not uncommon in Italian cities such as Rome.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Moreover, the settlement of Greek scholars in Rome, whether voluntarily or as slaves, gave Romans access to teachers of Greek literature and philosophy. Conversely, young Roman scholars also studied abroad in Greece and upon their return to Rome, were able to convey Greek achievements to their Latin leadership.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> And despite the translation of a few Greek texts into Latin, Roman scholars who aspired to the highest level did so using the Greek language. The Roman [[Politician|statesman]] and philosopher [[Cicero]] (106 – 43 BCE) was a prime example. He had studied under Greek teachers in Rome and then in Athens and [[Rhodes]]. He mastered considerable portions of Greek philosophy, wrote Latin treatises on several topics, and even wrote Greek commentaries of Plato's ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' as well as a Latin translation of it, which has not survived.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/>

In the beginning, support for scholarship in Greek knowledge was almost entirely funded by the Roman upper class.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> There were all sorts of arrangements, ranging from a talented scholar being attached to a wealthy household to owning educated Greek-speaking slaves.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> In exchange, scholars who succeeded at the highest level had an obligation to provide advice or intellectual companionship to their Roman benefactors, or to even take care of their libraries. The less fortunate or accomplished ones would teach their children or perform menial tasks.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> The level of detail and sophistication of Greek knowledge was adjusted to suit the interests of their Roman patrons. That meant popularizing Greek knowledge by presenting information that were of practical value such as medicine or logic (for courts and politics) but excluding subtle details of Greek metaphysics and epistemology. Beyond the basics, the Romans did not value natural philosophy and considered it an amusement for leisure time.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/>

Commentaries and [[encyclopedia]]s were the means by which Greek knowledge was popularized for Roman audiences.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> The Greek scholar [[Posidonius]] (c. 135-c. 51 BCE), a native of Syria, wrote prolifically on history, geography, moral philosophy, and natural philosophy. He greatly influenced Latin writers such as [[Marcus Terentius Varro]] (116-27 BCE), who wrote the encyclopedia ''Nine Books of Disciplines'', which covered nine arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> The ''Disciplines'' became a model for subsequent Roman encyclopedias and Varro's nine liberal arts were considered suitable education for a Roman gentleman. The first seven of Varro's nine arts would later define the [[Liberal arts education#History|seven liberal arts]] of [[Medieval university|medieval school]]s.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> The pinnacle of the popularization movement was the Roman scholar [[Pliny the Elder]] (23/24–79 CE), a native of northern Italy, who wrote several books on the history of Rome and grammar. His most famous work was his voluminous ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/>

After the death of the Roman Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] in 180 CE, the favorable conditions for scholarship and learning in the Roman Empire were upended by political unrest, civil war, urban decay, and looming economic crisis.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> In around 250 CE, [[Barbarian#In classical Greco-Roman contexts|barbarians]] began attacking and invading the Roman frontiers. These combined events led to a general decline in political and economic conditions. The living standards of the Roman upper class was severely impacted, and their loss of [[leisure]] diminished scholarly pursuits.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Moreover, during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, the Roman Empire was administratively divided into two halves: [[Greek East and Latin West]]. These administrative divisions weakened the intellectual contact between the two regions.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Eventually, both halves went their separate ways, with the Greek East becoming the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> [[Christianity]] was also steadily expanding during this time and soon became a major patron of education in the Latin West. Initially, the Christian church adopted some of the reasoning tools of Greek philosophy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE to defend its faith against sophisticated opponents.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Nevertheless, Greek philosophy received a mixed reception from leaders and adherents of the Christian faith.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Some such as [[Tertullian]] (c. 155-c. 230 CE) were vehemently opposed to philosophy, denouncing it as [[Heresy|heretic]]. Others such as [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430 CE) were ambivalent and defended Greek philosophy and science as the best ways to understand the natural world and therefore treated it as a [[handmaiden]] (or servant) of religion.<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/> Education in the West began its gradual decline, along with the rest of [[Western Roman Empire]], due to invasions by Germanic tribes, civil unrest, and economic collapse. Contact with the classical tradition was lost in specific regions such as [[Roman Britain]] and northern [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]] but continued to exist in Rome, northern Italy, southern Gaul, Spain, and [[Africa (Roman province)|North Africa]].<ref name= "lindberg2007g"/>