Editing Khmer architecture (section)

==Motifs==

===Apsara and devata===
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|caption1  ='''Apsaras''' (left) and a '''devata''' (right) grace the walls at [[Banteay Kdei]].
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|caption2  =Two '''apsaras''' appear on this pillar at the 12th-century Buddhist temple the [[Bayon]].
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[[Apsaras]], divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin is explained in the story of the churning of the [[Ocean of Milk]], or [[samudra manthan]], found in the [[Vishnu Purana]]. Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras, who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of temples and other religious buildings, however, was a [[Khmer people|Khmer]] innovation. In modern descriptions of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than dancing are more commonly called "[[devatas]]".<ref>See Roveda. ''Images of the Gods'', pp. 200 ff.</ref>

Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at [[Angkor]], but are most common in the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in the [[Architecture of Cambodia#Hall of Dancers|Hall of Dancers]] at [[Preah Khan]], in the pillars that line the passageways through the outer gallery of the [[Bayon]], and in the famous bas-relief of [[Angkor Wat]] depicting the churning of the Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at [[Angkor Wat]], where they appear individually and in groups.<ref>See Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p. 37.</ref>

[[File:Banteay Kdei, Angkor, Camboya, 2013-08-16, DD 15.JPG|thumb|left|This '''dvarapala''' stands guard at [[Banteay Kdei]].]]

===Dvarapala===
[[Dvarapala]]s are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs. They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at [[Preah Ko]], [[Lolei]], [[Banteay Srei]], [[Preah Khan]] and [[Banteay Kdei]].<ref>Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p. 37.</ref>

===Gajasimha and Reachisey===
The [[gajasimha]] is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found at [[Banteay Srei]] and at the temples belonging to the [[Hariharalaya|Roluos]] group.

The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at [[Angkor Wat]] in the epic bas reliefs of the outer gallery.<ref>Roveda, ''Images of the Gods'', pp. 211–212.</ref>

===Garuda===
[[File:Linteau Musée Guimet 25972.jpg|right|thumb|In this 9th century lintel, now on display at the [[Musée Guimet]], '''Garuda''' bears Vishnu on his shoulders.]]
[[Garuda]] is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the mythological enemy of [[nāga]]s, and the battle steed of [[Vishnu]]. Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands, and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer.<ref name = "ukougg">Roveda, ''Images of the Gods'', p. 177.</ref> They may be classified as follows:
* As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed of [[Vishnu]] or [[Krishna]], bearing the god on his shoulders, and simultaneously fighting against the god's enemies. Numerous such images of Garuda may be observed in the outer gallery of [[Angkor Wat]].
* Garuda serves as an [[Atlas (architecture)|atlas]] supporting a superstructure, as in the bas relief at Angkor Wat that depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized mythological lions are the most common atlas figures at Angkor.
* Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as in the gigantic relief sculptures on the outer wall of [[Preah Khan]]. In this context, Garuda symbolizes the military power of the Khmer kings and their victories over their enemies. Not coincidentally, the city of Preah Khan was built on the site of King [[Jayavarman VII]]'s victory over invaders from [[Champa]].
* In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and balustrades, Garuda is often depicted in relief against the fan of nāga heads. The relationship between Garuda and the nāga heads is ambiguous in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may again be one of domination of the nāga by Garuda.<ref name = "ukougg"/>

===Indra===
In the ancient religion of the [[Vedas]], [[Indra]] the sky-god reigned supreme. In the medieval [[Hinduism]] of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served only as a decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed elephant [[Airavata]] and holds his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or [[vajra]]. The numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu epic [[Mahabharata]] are not depicted at Angkor.<ref name = "ukougg"/>

===Kala===
[[File:Banteay Srei Kala.jpg|thumb|right|A '''kala''' serves as the base for a deity at the 10th-century Hindu temple [[Banteay Srei]].]]
The kala is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and associated with the destructive side of the god [[Shiva|Siva]].<ref>Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p. 39.</ref> In Khmer temple architecture, the kala serves as a common decorative element on lintels, tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for other figures.

Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in Khmer temple architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls of human victims were incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective magic or [[apotropaism]]. Such skulls tended to lose their lower jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may represent the Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents.<ref>Roveda, ''Images of the Gods'', p. 209.</ref>

===Krishna===
Scenes from the life of [[Krishna]], a hero and [[Avatar]] of the god [[Vishnu]], are common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown in Angkorian sculpture in the round. The literary sources for these scenes are the [[Mahabharata]], the [[Harivamsa]], and the [[Bhagavata Purana]].<ref>See Roveda, ''Images of the Gods'', pp. 76 ff.</ref> The following are some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna:
* A series of bas reliefs at the 11th-century temple pyramid called [[Baphuon]] depicts scenes of the birth and childhood of Krishna.<ref>Roveda, ''Images of the Gods'', p. 76.</ref>
* Numerous bas reliefs in various temples show Krishna subduing the [[nāga]] [[Kaliya]]. In Angkorian depictions, Krishna is shown effortlessly stepping on and pushing down his opponent's multiple heads.<ref>Rovedo, ''Images of the Gods'', p. 79</ref>
* Also common is the depiction of Krishna as he lifts Mount [[Govardhan Hill|Govardhana]] with one hand in order to provide the cowherds with shelter from the deluge caused by [[Indra]].<ref>Roveda, ''Images of the Gods'', p. 80.</ref>
* Krishna is frequently depicted killing or subduing various demons, including his evil uncle [[Kamsa]].<ref>Roveda, ''Images of the Gods'', p. 91.</ref> An extensive bas relief in the outer gallery of [[Angkor Wat]] depicts Krishna's battle with the [[Asura (Hinduism)|asura]] Bana. In battle, Krishna is shown riding on the shoulders of [[Garuda]], the traditional mount of [[Vishnu]].
* In some scenes, Krishna is depicted in his role as charioteer, advisor and protector of [[Arjuna]], the hero of the [[Mahabharata]]. A well-known bas relief from the 10th-century temple of [[Banteay Srei]] depicts the Krishna and Arjuna helping [[Agni]] to burn down Khandava forest.

===Linga===
[[File:Linga Musée Guimet 2597.jpg|thumb|left|This segmented '''linga''' from 10th century Angkor has a square base, an octagonal middle, and a round tip.]]
The [[linga]] is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god [[Shiva]] and of creative power.<ref>Glaize, ''Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p. 16.</ref> As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual, and only secondarily that of decoration. In the [[Khmer empire]], certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Siva.<ref>Coedès, ''Pour mieux comprendre Angkor'', p. 60.</ref> The lingas that survive from the Angkorean period are generally made of polished stone.

The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types.
* Some lingas are implanted in a flat square base called a [[yoni]], symbolic of the womb.
* On the surface of some lingas is engraved the face of Siva. Such lingas are called [[mukhalinga]]s.
* Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of [[Brahma]], an octagonal middle section symbolic of [[Vishnu]], and a round tip symbolic of [[Shiva]].

===Makara===
[[File:Lintel corner with makara rider 1.jpg|thumb|right|The corner of a lintel on one of the brick towers at [[Bakong]] shows a man riding on the back of a '''makara''' that in turn disgorges another monster.]]
A [[makara (Hindu mythology)|makara]] is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of an elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a crocodile, or a dragon. In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the makara is generally part of a decorative carving on a lintel, tympanum, or wall. Often the makara is depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or serpent, emerging from its gaping maw. The makara is a central motif in the design of the famously beautiful lintels of the [[Hariharalaya|Roluos]] group of temples: [[Preah Ko]], [[Bakong]], and [[Lolei]]. At [[Banteay Srei]], carvings of makaras disgorging other monsters may be observed on many of the corners of the buildings.

===Nāga===<!-- This section is linked from [[Angkor]] -->
[[File:Buddha shielded by Naga.jpg|left|thumb|[[Mucalinda]], the '''nāga''' king who shielded [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for Cambodian Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175 CE.]]

Mythical serpents, or [[Naga (mythology)|nāga]]s, represent an important motif in Khmer architecture as well as in free-standing sculpture. They are frequently depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged in a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.

[[File:Linteau Musée Guimet 25973.jpg|right|thumb|This multi-headed '''nāga''' is part of a decorative lintel from the end of the 9th century.]]
Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian [[lintel]]s. The composition of such lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center of a rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far ends of the rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either vinelike vegetation or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted wearing crowns, and others are depicted serving as mounts for human riders.

To the Angkorian, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the myths of origin for the Khmer people, who were said to be descended from the union of an Indian [[Brahman]] and a serpent princess from Cambodia.<ref>Glaize, ''The Monuments of Angkor'', p. 1.</ref> Nāgas were also characters in other well-known legends and stories depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the [[Ocean of Milk]], the legend of the Leper King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the [[Bayon]], and the story of [[Mucalinda]], the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements.<ref>Glaize, ''The Monuments of the Angkor Group'', p. 43.</ref>

===Nāga Bridge===
[[File:Statues over a bridge-angkor.jpg|thumb|right|Stone [[Asura (Buddhism)|Asuras]] hold the '''nāga''' [[Vasuki (snake)|Vasuki]] on a bridge leading into the 12th century city of [[Angkor Thom]].]]
Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by stone [[balustrade]]s shaped as nāgas.

In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the entrances to 12th century city of [[Angkor Thom]], the nāga-shaped balustrades are supported not by simple posts but by stone statues of gigantic warriors. These giants are the [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] and [[Asura (Hinduism)|asuras]] who used the nāga king [[Vasuki (snake)|Vasuki]] in order to the churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the [[amrita]] or elixir of immortality. The story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk or [[samudra manthan]] has its source in Indian mythology.

===Quincunx===
[[File:Quincunxlingakbalspean01.JPG|thumb|left|A '''linga''' in the form of a '''quincunx''', set inside a [[yoni]], is carved into the riverbed at [[Kbal Spean]].]]
A [[quincunx]] is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five peaks of [[Mount Meru]] were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and Khmer temples were arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic identification with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th-century temple known as [[East Mebon]], for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of [[Kbal Spean]].

===Shiva===
Most temples at [[Angkor]] are dedicated to [[Shiva]]. In general, the Angkorian Khmer represented and worshipped Shiva in the form of a [[lingam]], though they also fashioned anthropomorphic statues of the god. Anthropomorphic representations are also found in Angkorian bas reliefs. A famous tympanum from [[Banteay Srei]] depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with his consort, while the demon king [[Ravana]] shakes the mountain from below. At [[Angkor Wat]] and [[Bayon]], Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic. His attributes include the mystical eye in the middle of his forehead, the trident, and the rosary. His [[vahana]] or mount is the bull [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]].

===Vishnu===

Angkorian representations of [[Vishnu]] include anthropomorphic representations of the god himself, as well as representations of his incarnations or [[Avatar]]s, especially [[Rama]] and [[Krishna]]. Depictions of Vishnu are prominent at [[Angkor Wat]], the 12th-century temple that was originally dedicated to Vishnu. Bas reliefs depict Vishna battling with against [[Asura (Hinduism)|asura]] opponents, or riding on the shoulders of his [[vahana]] or mount, the gigantic eagle-man [[Garuda]]. Vishnu's attributes include the discus, the conch shell, the baton, and the orb.