Editing Language revitalization (section)

=== Europe ===
In [[Europe]], in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the use of both local and learned [[languages of Europe|languages]] declined as the central governments of the different states imposed their vernacular language as the standard throughout education and official use (this was the case in the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Italy]] and [[Greece]], and to some extent, in [[Germany]] and [[Austria-Hungary]]).{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}

In the last few decades,{{When|date=April 2025|reason=It is unclear when this process started}} local [[nationalism]] and [[human rights]] movements have made a more [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] policy standard in European states; sharp condemnation of the earlier practices of suppressing regional languages was expressed in the use of such terms as "[[language death|linguicide]]".

==== Basque ====
In [[Francoist Spain]], [[Basque language]] use was discouraged by the government's [[language policies of Francoist Spain|repressive policies]]. In the Basque Country, "Francoist repression was not only political, but also linguistic and cultural."<ref>Santiago de Pablo, "Lengua e identidad nacional en el País Vasco: Del franquismo a la democracia". In 'Le discours sur les langues d'Espagne : Edition français-espagnol', Christian Lagarde ed, Perpignan: Presses Universitaires de Perpignan, 2009, pp. 53-64, p. 53</ref> [[Francisco Franco|Franco's]] regime suppressed Basque from official discourse, education, and publishing,<ref>See Jose Carlos Herreras, Actas XVI Congreso AIH. José Carlos HERRERAS. Políticas de normalización lingüística en la España democrática", 2007, p. 2. Reproduced in https://cvc.cervantes.es/literatura/aih/pdf/16/aih_16_2_021.pdf</ref> making it illegal to register newborn babies under Basque names,<ref>See "Articulo 1, Orden Ministerial Sobre el Registro Civil, 18 de mayo de 1938". Reproduced in Jordi Busquets, "Casi Tres Siglos de Imposicion", 'El Pais' online, 29 April 2001. https://elpais.com/diario/2001/04/29/cultura/988495201_850215.html.</ref> and even requiring tombstone engravings in Basque to be removed.<ref>See Communicacion No. 2486, Negociado 4, Excelentisimo Gobierno Civil de Vizcaya, 27 Octubre de 1949". A letter of acknowledgement from the archive of the Alcaldia de Guernica y Lumo, 2 November 2941, is reproduced in https://radiorecuperandomemoria.com/2017/05/31/la-prohibicion-del-euskera-en-el-franquismo/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420121914/https://radiorecuperandomemoria.com/2017/05/31/la-prohibicion-del-euskera-en-el-franquismo/ |date=20 April 2019 }}</ref> In some provinces the public use of Basque was suppressed, with people fined for speaking it.<ref>See for example the letter from the Military Commander of Las Arenas, Biscay, dated 21 October 1938, acknowledging a fine for the public use of a Basque first name on the streets of Las Arenas, reproduced in https://radiorecuperandomemoria.com/2017/05/31/la-prohibicion-del-euskera-en-el-franquismo/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420121914/https://radiorecuperandomemoria.com/2017/05/31/la-prohibicion-del-euskera-en-el-franquismo/ |date=20 April 2019 }}</ref> Public use of Basque was frowned upon by supporters of the regime, often regarded as a sign of anti-Francoism or [[Basque separatism|separatism]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/francisco-franco |title=Francisco Franco |author=<!--not stated--> |website=HISTORY |publisher=A&E Television Networks |date=2009-11-09}}</ref> in the late 1960s.

Since 1968, Basque has been immersed in a revitalisation process, facing formidable obstacles. However, significant progress has been made in numerous areas. Six main factors have been identified to explain its relative success: 
# implementation and acceptance of [[Unified Basque|Unified, or Standard Basque (Euskara Batua)]], which was developed by the [[Euskaltzaindia]]
# integration of Basque in the education system
# creation of media in Basque (radio, newspapers, and television)
# the established new legal framework
# collaboration between public institutions and people's organisations, and 
# campaigns for Basque language literacy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Agirrezabal |first1=Lore |title=The basque experience : some keys to language and identity recovery |date=2010 |publisher=Garabide Elkartea |location=Eskoriatza, Gipuzkoa |isbn=978-84-613-6835-8 |url=https://www.ehu.eus/documents/3120344/3356416/The+Basque+Experience.pdf/85ea53f1-45ff-49c0-b92f-365c7f850cb5?t=1420475539000 |access-date=15 July 2021}}</ref>

While those six factors influenced the revitalisation process, the extensive development and use of [[language technologies]] is also considered a significant additional factor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alegria |first1=Iñaki |last2=Sarasola |first2=Kepa |title=Language technology for language communities: An overview based on our experience. In: FEL XXI : communities in control : learning tools and strategies for multilingual endangered language communities : proceedings of the 21st FEL Conference, 19-21 October 2017 |date=2017 |location=Hungerford, England |isbn=978-0-9560210-9-0 |url=http://ixa.si.ehu.eus/node/11357 |publisher=Foundation for Endangered Languages }}</ref> Overall, in the 1960s and later, the trend reversed and education and publishing in Basque began to flourish.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Robert |title=The Basques: the Franco years and beyond |year=1979 |publisher=University of Nevada Press |location=Reno |isbn=0-874-17057-5 |page=149 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/basquesfrancoyea00clar_0}}</ref> A sociolinguistic survey shows that there has been a steady increase in Basque speakers since the 1990s, and the percentage of young speakers exceeds that of the old.<ref name=basquetribune>{{cite web | url=https://basquetribune.com/the-basque-language-gains-speakers-but-no-surge-in-usage/ | title=The Basque Language Gains Speakers, but No Surge in Usage – Basque Tribune }}</ref>

==== Irish ====
{{Main|Status of the Irish language}}
One of the best known European attempts at language revitalization concerns the [[Irish language]]. While English is dominant through most of Ireland, Irish, a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]], is still spoken in certain areas called ''[[Gaeltacht]]aí'',<ref name=autogenerated2>Carnie, Andrew. "Modern Irish: Modern Irish: A Case Study in Language Revival Failure." (1995).</ref> but there it is in serious decline.<ref>This decline was noted in 2002. {{cite web|url=http://www.ahg.gov.ie/en/20YearStrategyfortheIrishLanguage/Publications/Report%20of%20Coimisi%C3%BAn%20na%20Gaeltachta.pdf |title=Report of the Gaeltacht Commission |year=2002 |access-date=20 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017090003/http://www.ahg.gov.ie/en/20YearStrategyfortheIrishLanguage/Publications/Report%20of%20Coimisi%C3%BAn%20na%20Gaeltachta.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2013 }}</ref> The challenges faced by the language over the last few centuries have included exclusion from important domains, social denigration, the death or emigration of many Irish speakers during the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Irish famine]] of the 1840s, and continued emigration since. Efforts to revitalise Irish were being made, however, from the mid-1800s, and were associated with a desire for Irish political independence.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> Contemporary Irish language revitalization has chiefly involved teaching Irish as a compulsory language in mainstream English-speaking schools. But the failure to teach it in an effective and engaging way means (as linguist Andrew Carnie notes) that students do not acquire the fluency needed for the lasting viability of the language, and this leads to boredom and resentment. Carnie also noted a lack of media in Irish (2006),<ref name=autogenerated2 /> though this is no longer the case.

The decline of the Gaeltachtaí and the failure of state-directed revitalisation have been countered by an urban revival movement. This is largely based on an independent community-based school system, known generally as [[Gaelscoil]]eanna. These schools teach entirely through Irish and their number is growing, with over thirty such schools in Dublin alone.<ref>Gaelscoileanna Teo – Statistics: http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie/en/about/statistics/</ref> They are an important element in the creation of a network of urban Irish speakers (known as Gaeilgeoirí), who tend to be young, well-educated and middle-class. It is now likely that this group has acquired critical mass, a fact reflected in the expansion of Irish-language media.<ref name="gaelport">http://www.gaelport.com/default.aspx?treeid=37&NewsItemID=3726: ‘Schism fears for Gaeilgeoirí,’ Brian Ó Broin, 16 January 2010, ''The Irish Times''.</ref> Irish language television has enjoyed particular success.<ref>See the website of TG4: http://www.tg4.ie/.</ref> It has been argued that they tend to be better educated than monolingual English speakers and enjoy higher social status.<ref>‘Language and Occupational Status: Linguistic Elitism in the Irish Labour Market,’ The Economic and Social Review, Vol. 40, No. 4, Winter, 2009, pp. 435–460: https://ideas.repec.org/a/eso/journl/v40y2009i4p435-460.html</ref> They represent the transition of Irish to a modern urban world, with an accompanying rise in prestige.

==== Scottish Gaelic ====
There are also current attempts to revive the related language of [[Scottish Gaelic]], which was suppressed following the formation of the United Kingdom, and entered further decline due to the [[Highland clearances]]. Currently{{when|date=November 2024}}, Gaelic is only spoken widely in the [[Western Isles]] and some relatively small areas of the [[Highlands and Islands]]. The decline in fluent Gaelic speakers has slowed; however, the population center has shifted to L2 speakers in urban areas, especially Glasgow.<ref>{{cite news |title=Census shows decline in Gaelic speakers 'slowed' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-24281487 |access-date=23 June 2014 |work=[[BBC News Online]] |date=26 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first1=Alison |last1=Campsie |title=Gaelic speakers map: Where in Scotland is Gaelic thriving? |url=http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/gaelic-speakers-map-where-in-scotland-is-gaelic-thriving-1-3903467 |access-date=6 April 2017 |work=[[The Scotsman]] |language=en}}</ref>

==== Manx ====
{{Main|Manx language revival}}
Another Celtic language, [[Manx language|Manx]], lost its [[Ned Maddrell|last native speaker]] in 1974 and was declared extinct by [[UNESCO]] in 2009, but never completely fell from use.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/isle_of_man/7901763.stm|title=UN declares Manx Gaelic 'extinct'|date=2009-02-20|access-date=2018-01-05|language=en-GB}}</ref> The language is now taught in primary and secondary schools, including as a teaching medium at the [[Bunscoill Ghaelgagh]], used in some public events and spoken as a second language by approximately 1,800 people.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/apr/02/how-manx-language-came-back-from-dead-isle-of-man |title=How the Manx language came back from the dead |last=Whitehead |first=Sarah |date=2015-04-02 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=2018-01-05 |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Revitalization efforts include radio shows in Manx Gaelic and social media and online resources. The Manx government has also been involved in the effort by creating organizations such as the Manx Heritage Foundation ([[Culture Vannin]]) and the position of Manx Language Officer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Gary N. |last2=Johnson |first2=Henry |last3=Sallabank |first3=Julia |date=2015-07-03 |title='I'm not dead yet': a comparative study of indigenous language revitalization in the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey |journal=[[Current Issues in Language Planning]] |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=259–278 |doi=10.1080/14664208.2014.972535 |s2cid=145626745 |issn=1466-4208 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/21243/1/I%27m%20Not%20Dead%20Yet%20%28Revised%29%2025-1-14_untracked.pdf}}</ref> The government has released an official Manx Language Strategy for 2017–2021.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theworldweekly.com/reader/view/magazine/2018-01-04/lifelines-for-indigenous-languages/10437 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107232933/https://www.theworldweekly.com/reader/view/magazine/2018-01-04/lifelines-for-indigenous-languages/10437/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=7 January 2018 |title=Lifelines for indigenous languages {{!}} The World Weekly |website=www.theworldweekly.com |access-date=2018-01-06}}</ref>

==== Cornish ====
There have been a number of attempts to revive the [[Cornish language]], both privately and some under the [[Cornish Language Partnership]]. Some of the activities have included translation of the Christian scriptures,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.evertype.com/books/testament-noweth-ucr.html |title=The New Testament in Cornish |website=www.evertype.com}}</ref> a guild of bards,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gorsethkernow.org.uk/english/welcome.htm |title=Guild of Bards |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706051224/http://www.gorsethkernow.org.uk/english/welcome.htm |archive-date=2009-07-06 |website=[[Gorseth Kernow]]}}</ref> and the promotion of [[Cornish literature]] in modern Cornish, including novels and poetry.

==== Breton ====
{{Main|Breton language#Revival efforts}}

==== Caló ====
The [[Gitanos|Romani]] arriving in the Iberian Peninsula developed an Iberian [[Romani language|Romani]] dialect.
As time passed, Romani ceased to be a full language and became [[Caló language|Caló]], a [[Cant (language)|cant]] mixing Iberian Romance grammar and Romani vocabulary.
With sedentarization and obligatory instruction in the official languages, Caló is used less and less.
As Iberian Romani proper is extinct and as Caló is endangered, some people are trying to revitalise the language. The Spanish politician [[Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia]] promotes [[Romanò-Kalò]], a variant of [[Romani language standardization|International Romani]], enriched by Caló words.<ref name="CursoRamírez">[https://unionromani.org/notis/2006/noti2006-12-29a.htm ''"Unión Romaní imparte el primer curso de romanò-kalò"''] {{in lang|es}}, Union Romani, 29 December 2006</ref> His goal is to reunify the Caló and Romani roots.

==== Livonian ====
{{Main|Livonian language revival}}
The Livonian language, a Finnic language, once spoken on about a third of modern-day Latvian territory,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6ig3YQ5Z64|title=Lecture by Valts Ernštreits "Chasing the heritage of Livonians - Latvia's indigenous people"|date=6 October 2020 |via=www.youtube.com}}</ref> died in the 21st century with the death of the last native speaker [[Grizelda Kristiņa]] on 2 June 2013.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.com/comment/register/article/death-of-a-language-last-ever-speaker-of-livonian-passes-away-aged-103-8k0rlplv8xj |title=Death of a language: last ever speaker of Livonian passes away aged 103 |first=David |last=Charter |work=[[The Times]]}}</ref> Today there are about 210 people mainly living in Latvia who identify themselves as Livonian and speak the language on the A1-A2 level according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and between 20 and 40 people who speak the language on level B1 and up.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.livones.net/valoda/?raksts=8701 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202235047/http://www.livones.net/valoda/?raksts=8701 |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 2, 2014 |title=livones.net |date=February 2, 2014}}</ref> Today all speakers learn Livonian as a second language. There are different programs educating Latvians on the cultural and linguistic heritage of Livonians and the fact that most Latvians have common Livonian descent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90cWpvhdfdY |title=Lībiešu tradicionālā kultūra Latvijas kultūras kanonā. Stāsta Valts Ernštreits. |date=23 October 2019 |trans-title=Livonian traditional culture in the cultural canon of Latvia. Narrated by Walt Ernstreit. |language=lv |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

Programs worth mentioning include:

* Livones.net<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.livones.net/en |title=Livones.net |website=www.livones.net}}</ref> with extensive information about language, history and culture
* The Livonian Institute of the University of Latvia<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.livones.net/lili/en |title=Livones.net |website=www.livones.net|date=20 November 2022 }}</ref> doing research on the Livonian language, other Finnic languages in Latvia and providing an extensive Livonian-Latvian-Estonian dictionary with declinations/conjugations<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.livones.net/lili/en/vardnica/ |title=Livones.net |website=www.livones.net}}</ref>
* Virtual Livonia<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://virtuallivonia.info/ |title=Virtual Livonia ∙ Līvõmō Internets ∙ Līvzeme Internetā |website=Virtual Livonia}}</ref> providing information on the Livonian language and especially its grammar
* Mierlinkizt:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.livones.net/lv/norises/2020/libiesu-vasaras-skola-mierlinkizt |title=Livones.net - Lībiešu vasaras skola "Mierlinkizt" |trans-title=Livonian summer school "Mierlinkizt" |language=lv |website=www.livones.net}}</ref> An annual summer camp for children to teach children about the Livonian language, culture etc.
* Līvõd Īt (Livonian Union)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.livones.net/en/cilveki/organizacijas/livod-it-livonian-union |title=Livones.net - Līvõd Īt (Livonian Union) |website=www.livones.net}}</ref>

The Livonian linguistic and cultural heritage is included in the Latvian cultural canon<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://kulturaskanons.lv/archive/libiesu-kultura/ |title=Lībiešu tradicionālā kultūra &#124; Latvijas kultūras kanons |trans-title=Livonian traditional culture &#124; Latvian cultural canon |language=lv}}</ref> and the protection, revitalization and development of Livonian as an indigenous language is guaranteed by Latvian law<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=14740 |title=Valsts valodas likums |trans-title=State Language Law |language=lv |website=LIKUMI.LV}}</ref>

==== Old Prussian ====

A few linguists and philologists are involved in reviving a reconstructed form of the extinct [[Old Prussian language]] from Luther's catechisms, the Elbing Vocabulary, place names, and Prussian loanwords in the [[Low Prussian dialect]] of [[Low German]]. Several dozen people use the language in [[Lithuania]], [[Kaliningrad]], and [[Poland]], including a few children who are natively bilingual.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Szatkowski |first1=Piotr |title=Language practices in a family of Prussian language revivalists: Conclusions based on short-term participants observation |journal=Pismo Humanistów |date=2021 |volume=18 |issue=2626 |doi=10.11649/a.0000 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024}}</ref>

The Prusaspirā Society has published its translation of [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]]'s ''[[The Little Prince]]''. The book was translated by Piotr Szatkowski (Pīteris Šātkis) and released in 2015.<ref>[http://culture.pl/en/article/little-prince-published-in-prussian "Little Prince Published in Prussian"], Culture.PL, 2015/02/17</ref> The other efforts of Baltic Prussian societies include the development of online dictionaries, learning apps and games. There also have been several attempts to produce music with lyrics written in the revived Baltic Prussian language, most notably in the Kaliningrad Oblast by [[Romowe Rikoito]],<ref>{{Cite web |title= ROMOWE RIKOITO - Undēina |publisher= Dangus |url=http://www.dangus.net/releases/albumai/043_RomoweRikoito.htm |access-date= 29 August 2014}}</ref> Kellan and Āustras Laīwan, but also in Lithuania by [[Kūlgrinda (band)|Kūlgrinda]] in their 2005 album ''Prūsų Giesmės'' (Prussian Hymns),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senoji prūsų kalba atgimsta naujausioje grupės KŪLGRINDA plokštelėje |trans-title=The old Prussian language is revived in the latest album of the group KŪLGRINDA |language=lt |publisher=Dangus |url=http://www.dangus.net/news/nauja418.htm |access-date= 29 August 2014}}</ref> and in [[Latvia]] by Rasa Ensemble in 1988<ref>{{cite book |title=The Power of Song: Nonviolent National Culture in the Baltic Singing Revolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_TfOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |last=Smidchens |first=Guntis |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-99310-2 |year=2014 |page=12 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> and [[Valdis Muktupāvels]] in his 2005 [[oratorio]] "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" featuring several parts sung in Prussian.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oratorio |url=http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/oratorio.htm |access-date=29 August 2014}}</ref>

Important in this revival was [[Vytautas Mažiulis]], who died on 11 April 2009, and his pupil [[Letas Palmaitis]], leader of the experiment and author of the website ''Prussian Reconstructions''.<ref>[http://donelaitis.vdu.lt/prussian/index.htm Prussian Reconstructions]</ref> Two late contributors were Prāncis Arellis ([[:lt:Pranciškus Erelis|Pranciškus Erelis]]), Lithuania, and Dailūns Russinis ([[Dailonis Rusiņš]]), Latvia. After them, [[Twankstas Glabbis]] from [[Kaliningrad oblast]] and [[Nērtiks Pamedīns]] from East-Prussia, now Polish [[Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship|Warmia-Masuria]] actively joined.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

==== Yola ====
The [[Yola language]] revival movement has cultivated in Wexford in recent years, and the “Gabble Ing Yola” resource center for Yola materials claims there are around 140 speakers of the Yola language today.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How many speakers of Yola are there now? |url=https://sites.google.com/view/gabble-ing-yola/faq?authuser=0#h.l4sh1vo1baxr |access-date=2022-01-19 |website=google |language=en}}</ref>