Editing Religious experience (section)

==Scientific study==
===Neuroscience===
{{Further|Neuroscience of religion}}
{{See also|Cognitive science of religion}}

Early studies in the 1950s and 1960s attempted to use [[Electroencephalography|EEGs]] to study brain wave patterns correlated with spiritual states. During the 1980s Dr. [[Michael Persinger]] stimulated the [[temporal lobes]] of human subjects with a weak [[magnetic field]].<ref>{{cite web |title=God on the Brain – programme summary |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2003/godonbrain.shtml |date=17 April 2003 |work=BBC}}</ref> His subjects claimed to have a sensation of "an ethereal presence in the room."{{sfn|Hitt|1999}} Some current studies use [[neuroimaging]] to localize brain regions active, or differentially active, during religious experiences.{{sfn|Azari|Nickel|Wunderlich|Niedeggen|2001}}{{sfn|Azari|Slors|2007}} These neuroimaging studies have implicated a number of brain regions, including the [[limbic system]], dorsolateral [[prefrontal cortex]], superior [[parietal lobe]], and [[caudate nucleus]].{{sfn|Newberg|Alavi|Baime|Pourdehnad|2001}}{{sfn|Azari|Missimer|Seitz|2005}}{{sfn|Beauregard|Paquette|2006}} Based on the complex nature of religious experience, it is likely that they are mediated by an interaction of neural mechanisms that all add a small piece to the overall experience.{{sfn|Azari|Missimer|Seitz|2005}}

Neuroscience of religion, also known as ''neurotheology'', ''biotheology'' or ''spiritual neuroscience'',{{sfn|Biello|2007}} is the study of correlations of [[neural]] phenomena  with subjective experiences of [[spirituality]] and hypotheses to explain these phenomena. Proponents of neurotheology claim that there is a [[neurological]] and [[evolutionary]] basis for [[subjective experience]]s traditionally categorized as spiritual or religious.{{sfn|Gajilan|2007}}

The neuroscience of religion takes neural correlates as the basis of cognitive functions and religious experiences. These religious experiences are thereby [[Emergence|emergent properties]] of neural correlates. This approach does not necessitate exclusion of the Self, but interprets the Self as influenced or otherwise acted upon by underlying neural mechanisms. Proponents argue that religious experience can be evoked through [[Stimulus (physiology)|stimulus]] of specific brain regions and/or can be observed through measuring increase in activity of specific brain regions.{{sfn|Azari|Nickel|Wunderlich|Niedeggen|2001}}{{refn|group=note|This is contrary to the view of William James and F.D.E. Schleiermacher who viewed religious experience as a "preconceptual, immediate affective event."{{sfn|Schleiermacher|1958}}{{sfn|James|1985}}}}

According to the neurotheologist [[Andrew B. Newberg]] and two colleagues, neurological processes which are driven by the repetitive, rhythmic stimulation which is typical of human ritual, and which contribute to the delivery of transcendental feelings of connection to a universal unity.{{clarify|incomplete sentence|date=June 2012}} They posit, however, that physical stimulation alone is not sufficient to generate transcendental unitive experiences. For this to occur they say there must be a blending of the rhythmic stimulation with ideas. Once this occurs "...ritual turns a meaningful idea into a visceral experience."{{sfn|Newberg|D'Aquili|Rause|2002|p=90}} Moreover, they say that humans are compelled to act out myths by the biological operations of the brain due to what they call the "inbuilt tendency of the brain to turn thoughts into actions."

An alternate approach is influenced by [[personalism]], and exists contra-parallel to the reductionist approach. It focuses on the Self as the object of interest,{{refn|group=note|According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "[personalism] emphasizes the significance, uniqueness and inviolability of the person, as well as the person's essentially relational or communitarian dimension."{{sfn|Williams|Bengtsson|2016}}}} the same object of interest as in religion.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}} According to [[Patrick McNamara (neuroscientist)|Patrick McNamara]], a proponent of personalism, the Self is a neural entity that controls rather than consists of the [[Cognition|cognitive]] functions being processed in brain regions.{{sfn|Schjoedt|2011}}{{sfn|McNamara|2009|p=2}}

A biological basis for religious experience may exist.{{sfn|McNamara|2009|p=2}}{{sfn|D'Onofrio|Eaves|Murrelle|Maes|1999}} References to the supernatural or mythical beings first appeared approximately 40,000 years ago.{{sfn|Mithen|1996}}{{sfn|Previc|2006}} A popular theory posits that [[dopaminergic]] brain systems are the evolutionary basis for human intellect{{sfn|Previc|1999}}{{sfn|Previc|2006}} and more specifically [[Abstraction|abstract reasoning]].{{sfn|Previc|2006}}  The capacity for religious thought arises from the capability to employ abstract reasoning. There is no evidence to support the theory that abstract reasoning, generally or with regard to religious thought, evolved independent of the dopaminergic axis.{{sfn|Previc|2006}} Religious behavior has been linked to "extrapersonal brain systems that predominate the ventromedial cortex and rely heavily on dopaminergic transmission."{{sfn|Previc|2006}} A biphasic effect exists with regard to activation of the dopaminergic axis and/or ventromedial cortex.  While mild activation can evoke a perceived understanding of the supernatural, extreme activation can lead to delusions characteristic of [[psychosis]].{{sfn|Previc|2006}} Stress can cause the depletion of [[Serotonin|5-hydroxytryptamine]], also referred to as [[serotonin]].{{sfn|Hoyer|Clarke|Fozard|Hartig|1994}} The ventromedial 5-HT axis is involved in peripersonal activities such as emotional arousal, social skills, and visual feedback.{{sfn|Previc|2006}} When 5-HT is decreased or depleted, one may become subject to "incorrect attributions of self-initiated or internally generated activity (e.g. [[hallucination]]s)."{{sfn|Bentall|1990}}

===Psychiatry and neurology===
{{See also|Mental health of Jesus}}
A 2011 paper suggested that psychiatric conditions associated with [[Psychosis|psychotic]] spectrum symptoms may be possible explanations for revelatory-driven experiences and activities such as those of Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Saint Paul. It also proposed that the behavior of the followers of these religious figures could be explained through the lens of psychopathology and group dynamics.{{sfn|Murray|Cunningham|Price|2011}}

[[Temporal lobe epilepsy]] has become a popular field of study due to its correlation to religious experience.{{sfn|Ellison|Levin|1998}}{{sfn|Koenig|2009}}{{sfn|Tedrus|Fonseca|Höehr|2014}}{{sfn|Geschwind|1983}} Religious experiences and hyperreligiosity are often used to characterize those with temporal lobe epilepsy.{{sfn|Landtblom|2006}}{{sfn|Devinsky|2003}} Visionary religious experiences, and momentary lapses of consciousness, may point toward a diagnosis of [[Geschwind syndrome]]. More generally, the symptoms are consistent with features of temporal lobe epilepsy, not an uncommon feature in religious icons and mystics.{{sfn|Devinsky|Schachter|2009}} It seems that this phenomenon is not exclusive to TLE, but can manifest in the presence of other [[Epilepsy|epileptic]] variates{{sfn|Trimble|Freeman|2006}}{{sfn|Sloan|Bagliella|Powell|1999}}{{sfn|Previc|2006}} as well as [[mania]], [[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|obsessive-compulsive disorder]],{{sfn|Sapolsky|1998|pp=263–270}} and [[schizophrenia]], conditions characterized by ventromedial dopaminergic dysfunction.{{sfn|Previc|2006}}

===Psychedelic drugs===
{{Further|Psychedelic experience}}
{{See also|Ego death}}
A number of studies by [[Roland R. Griffiths]] and other researchers have concluded that high doses of [[psilocybin]] and other classic psychedelics trigger [[mystical experience]]s in most research participants.{{sfn|Griffiths|Richards|McCann|Jesse|2006}}{{sfn|Barrett|Johnson|Griffiths|2015}}{{sfn|Barsuglia|Davis|Palmer|Lancelotta|2018}}{{sfn|Johnson|Hendricks|Barrett|Griffiths|2019}} Mystical experiences have been measured by a number of [[psychometric]] scales, including the [[Ralph W. Hood|Hood]] Mysticism Scale, the Spiritual Transcendence Scale, and the Mystical Experience Questionnaire.{{sfn|Johnson|Hendricks|Barrett|Griffiths|2019}} The revised version of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire, for example, asks participants about four dimensions of their experience, namely the "mystical" quality, positive mood such as the experience of amazement, the loss of the usual sense of time and space, and the sense that the experience cannot be adequately conveyed through words.{{sfn|Johnson|Hendricks|Barrett|Griffiths|2019}} The questions on the "mystical" quality in turn probe multiple aspects: the sense of "pure" being, the sense of unity with one's surroundings, the sense that what one experienced was real, and the sense of sacredness.{{sfn|Johnson|Hendricks|Barrett|Griffiths|2019}} Some researchers have questioned the interpretation of the results from these studies and whether the framework and terminology of mysticism are appropriate in a scientific context, while other researchers have responded to those criticisms and argued that descriptions of mystical experiences are compatible with a scientific worldview.{{sfn|Sanders|Zijlmans|2021}}{{sfn|Breeksema|van Elk|2021}}{{sfn|Jylkkä|2021}}