Editing Reproductive rights (section)

==Issues==
===Birth control===
{{See also|Forced pregnancy}}
[[Birth control]], also known as contraception and fertility control, is a method or device used to prevent [[pregnancy]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Definition of Birth control|url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=53351|work=MedicineNet|access-date=9 August 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806234913/http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=53351|archive-date=6 August 2012}}</ref> Birth control has been used since ancient times, but effective and safe methods of birth control only became available in the 20th century.<ref name=Hopkins2010>{{cite book|last1=Hanson|first1=S.J.|last2=Burke|first2=Anne E.|date=21 December 2010|chapter=Fertility control: contraception, sterilization, and abortion|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Sg5sXyiBvkC&pg=PR232|editor1-last=Hurt|editor1-first=K. Joseph|editor2-last=Guile|editor2-first=Matthew W.|editor3-last=Bienstock|editor3-first=Jessica L.|editor4-last=Fox|editor4-first=Harold E.|editor5-last=Wallach|editor5-first=Edward E.|title=The Johns Hopkins manual of gynecology and obstetrics|edition=4th|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|pages=382–395|isbn=978-1-60547-433-5}}</ref> Planning, making available, and using birth control is called [[family planning]].<ref name=OED2012>{{cite book|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/19395|title=Oxford English Dictionary|date=June 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref name="WHO-health-topic">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/topics/family_planning/en/|title=Family planning|author=World Health Organization (WHO)|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|work=Health topics|access-date=28 March 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318195523/http://www.who.int/topics/family_planning/en/|archive-date=18 March 2016}}</ref> Some cultures limit or discourage access to birth control because they consider it to be morally, religiously, or politically undesirable.<ref name=Hopkins2010 />

All birth control methods meet opposition, especially [[religion|religious]] opposition, in some parts of the world. Opposition does not only target modern methods, but also 'traditional' ones; for example, the [[Quiverfull]] movement, a conservative Christian ideology, encourages the maximization of procreation, and opposes all forms of birth control, including [[natural family planning]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/arrows-war/|title=Arrows for the War|last=Joyce|first=Kathryn|journal=The Nation|date=9 November 2006|access-date=19 June 2019|language=en-US|issn=0027-8378}}</ref>

===Abortion===
{{Further|Abortion law|Abortion-rights movements}}
According to a study by WHO and the Guttmacher Institute worldwide, 25 million [[unsafe abortion]]s (45% of all abortions) occurred every year between 2010 and 2014. 97% of unsafe abortions occur in developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. By contrast, most abortions that take place in Western and Northern Europe and North America are safe.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2017/unsafe-abortions-worldwide/en/|title=Worldwide, an estimated 25 million unsafe abortions occur each year|website=World Health Organization}}</ref>

The [[Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women]] considers the criminalization of abortion a "violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights" and a form of "gender-based violence"; paragraph 18 of its ''General recommendation No. 35 on gender-based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19'' states that: "Violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights, such as forced sterilizations, forced abortion, forced pregnancy, criminalisation of abortion, denial or delay of safe abortion and post-abortion care, forced continuation of pregnancy, abuse and mistreatment of women and girls seeking sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services, are forms of [[violence against women|gender based violence]] that, depending on the circumstances, may amount to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment."<ref name="tbinternet.ohchr.org">{{cite web|url=https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/1_Global/CEDAW_C_GC_35_8267_E.pdf |title=General recommendation No. 35 on gender-based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19 |author=Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women |publisher=UN Human Rights |date=14 July 2017 |access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref> The same ''General Recommendation'' also urges countries at paragraph 31 to [...] "In particular, repeal:
a) Provisions that allow, tolerate or condone forms of gender-based violence against women, including [...] legislation that criminalises abortion."<ref name="tbinternet.ohchr.org"/>

An article from the World Health Organization calls safe, legal abortion a "[[fundamental right]] of women, irrespective of where they live" and [[unsafe abortion]] a "silent [[pandemic]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/ua_paper/en/index.html|title=WHO: Unsafe Abortion – The Preventable Pandemic|access-date=16 January 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113104553/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/ua_paper/en/index.html|archive-date=13 January 2010}}</ref> The article states "ending the silent pandemic of unsafe abortion is an urgent [[public health|public-health]] and [[human-rights]] imperative." It also states "access to safe abortion improves [[women's health]], and vice versa, as documented in [[Romania]] during the regime of President [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]]" and "legalisation of abortion on request is a necessary but insufficient step toward improving women's health" citing that in some countries, such as India where abortion has been legal for decades, access to competent care remains restricted because of other barriers. WHO's Global Strategy on Reproductive Health, adopted by the World Health Assembly in May 2004, noted: "As a preventable cause of maternal mortality and morbidity, unsafe abortion must be dealt with as part of the MDG on improving maternal health and other international development goals and targets."<ref name="who.int">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/unsafe_abortion/hrpwork/en/index.html |title=WHO &#124; Preventing unsafe abortion |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref> The WHO's Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), whose research concerns people's sexual and reproductive health and lives,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/hrp/en/ |title=HRP &#124; World Health Organization |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref> has an overall strategy to combat unsafe abortion that comprises four inter-related activities:<ref name="who.int"/>
* to collate, synthesize and generate scientifically sound evidence on unsafe abortion prevalence and practices;
* to develop improved technologies and implement interventions to make abortion safer;
* to translate evidence into norms, tools and guidelines;
* and to assist in the development of programmes and policies that reduce unsafe abortion and improve access to safe abortion and high quality post-abortion care

The UN has estimated in 2017 that repealing anti-abortion laws would save the lives of nearly 50,000 women a year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=55141|title=UN News – Repealing anti-abortion laws would save the lives of nearly 50,000 women a year – UN experts|author=United Nations News Service Section |date=27 September 2016|website=UN News Service Section}}</ref> 209,519 abortions take place in England and Wales alone.<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 June 2020|title=Abortion Statistics, England and Wales: 2019|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/891405/abortion-statistics-commentary-2019.pdf}}</ref> Unsafe abortions take place primarily in countries where abortion is illegal, but also occur in countries where it is legal. Despite its legal status, an abortion is ''[[de facto]]'' hardly optional for women due to most doctors being [[conscientious objector]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|
url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/11/italian-gynaecologists-refuse-abortions-miscarriages|title=Seven in 10 Italian gynaecologists refuse to carry out abortions|journal=The Guardian|last1=Kirchgaessner |first1=Stephanie|last2=Duncan|first2=Pamela|last3=Nardelli|first3=Alberto|last4=Robineau|first4=Delphine|date=11 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Milekic|first=Sven|
url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/doctors-refusal-to-perform-abortions-divides-croatia-02-13-2017|title=Doctors' Refusal to Perform Abortions Divides Croatia |website=Balkan Insight|date=14 February 2017}}</ref> Other reasons include the lack of knowledge that abortions are legal, lower socioeconomic backgrounds and spatial disparities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Upadhyay|first1=Ushma D.|last2=Jones|first2=Rachel K.|last3=Weitz|first3=Tracy A.|date=2013|title=At What Cost? Payment for Abortion Care by U.S. Women|journal=Women's Health Issues|volume=23|issue=3|pages=173–178|doi=10.1016/j.whi.2013.03.001|pmid=23660430|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bearak|first1=Jonathan M.|last2=Burke|first2=Kristen L.|last3=Jones|first3=Rachel K.|date=2017|title=Disparities and change over time in distance women would need to travel to have an abortion in the USA: a spatial analysis|journal=The Lancet Public Health|volume=2|issue=11|pages=493–500|doi=10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30158-5|pmid=29253373|pmc=5943037}}</ref>{{Globalize inline|US|date=October 2020|reason=Any financial barriers outside the US?}} Concerns have been raised about these practical considerations; the UN in its 2017 resolution on ''Intensification of efforts to prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls: domestic violence'' urged states to guarantee access to "safe abortion where such services are permitted by national law".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/71/170|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 19 December 2016: 71/170. Intensification of efforts to prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls: domestic violence |date=7 February 2017 |access-date=23 October 2020 |website=United Nations}}</ref> In 2008, [[Human Rights Watch]] stated that "In fact, even where abortion is permitted by law, women often have severely limited access to safe abortion services because of lack of proper regulation, health services, or political will" and estimated that "Approximately 13 percent of maternal deaths worldwide are attributable to unsafe abortion—between 68,000 and 78,000 deaths annually."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/women/abortion.html|title=Women's Human Rights: Abortion|website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref>

The [[Maputo Protocol]], which was adopted by the [[African Union]] in the form of a protocol to the [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]], states at Article 14 (Health and Reproductive Rights) that: "(2). States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to: [...] c) protect the reproductive rights of women by authorising medical abortion in cases of sexual assault, rape, incest, and where the continued pregnancy endangers the mental and physical health of the mother or the life of the mother or the foetus."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.achpr.org/instruments/women-protocol/#14|title=Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa / Legal Instruments / ACHPR|website=ACHPR|access-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> The Maputo Protocol is the first international treaty to recognize abortion, under certain conditions, as a woman's human right.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.achpr.org/instruments/general-comment-two-rights-women/|title=General Comment No. 2 on Article 14.1 (a), (b), (c) and (f) and Article 14. 2 (a) and (c) of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa / Legal Instruments / ACHPR|website=ACHPR|access-date=19 June 2019}}</ref>

The ''General comment No. 36 (2018) on article 6 of the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]], on the right to life'', adopted by the [[Human Rights Committee]] in 2018, defines, for the first time ever, a human right to abortion – in certain circumstances (however these UN general comments are considered [[soft law]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/un-human-rights-treaty-bodies/general-comments-of-the-human-rights-committee-and-their-legitimacy/EF8328BB5B2B3EC932E44C45E192EB9B|title=General Comments of the Human Rights Committee and their legitimacy|last1=Grover|first1=Leena|last2=Keller|first2=Helen|editor1-first=Helen|editor1-last=Keller|editor2-first=Geir|editor2-last=Ulfstein|date=April 2012|website=UN Human Rights Treaty Bodies: Law and Legitimacy|pages=116–198|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139047593.005|isbn=9781139047593|access-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> and, as such, not legally binding).

<blockquote>Although States parties may adopt measures designed to regulate voluntary terminations of pregnancy, such measures must not result in violation of the right to life of a pregnant woman or girl, or her other rights under the Covenant. Thus, restrictions on the ability of women or girls to seek abortion must not, inter alia, jeopardize their lives, subject them to physical or mental pain or suffering which violates article 7, discriminate against them or arbitrarily interfere with their privacy. ''States parties must provide safe, legal and effective access to abortion where the life and health of the pregnant woman or girl is at risk, and where carrying a pregnancy to term would cause the pregnant woman or girl substantial pain or suffering, most notably where the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest or is not viable.'' In addition, States parties may not regulate pregnancy or abortion in all other cases in a manner that runs contrary to their duty to ensure that women and girls do not have to undertake unsafe abortions, and they should revise their abortion laws accordingly. For example, they should not take measures such as criminalizing pregnancies by unmarried women or apply criminal sanctions against women and girls undergoing abortion or against medical service providers assisting them in doing so, since taking such measures compel women and girls to resort to unsafe abortion. States parties should not introduce new barriers and should remove existing barriers that deny effective access by women and girls to safe and legal abortion, including barriers caused as a result of the exercise of conscientious objection by individual medical providers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CCPR/Shared%20Documents/1_Global/CCPR_C_GC_36_8785_E.pdf |title=General comment No. 36 (2018) on article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the right to life |author=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |publisher=UN Human Rights |date=30 October 2018 |access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref></blockquote>

When negotiating the Cairo Programme of Action at the 1994 [[International Conference on Population and Development]] (ICPD), the issue was so contentious that delegates eventually decided to omit any recommendation to legalize abortion, instead advising governments to provide proper post-abortion care and to invest in programs that will decrease the number of unwanted pregnancies.<ref>{{cite book|title=Reproductive Rights in a Global Context |last= Knudsen |first=Lara |year=2006 |publisher=Vanderbilt University Press |isbn=978-0-8265-1528-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/reproductiverigh0000knud/page/6 6] |url=https://archive.org/details/reproductiverigh0000knud |url-access=registration}}</ref>

On 18 April 2008 the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe]], a group comprising members from 47 European countries, adopted a resolution calling for the decriminalization of abortion within reasonable gestational limits and guaranteed access to safe abortion procedures. The nonbinding resolution was passed on 16 April by a vote of 102 to 69.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/media/inthenews/2008/04/18/index.html |title=Council of Europe Urges Member States to Decriminalize Abortion |publisher=Guttmacher.org |date=18 April 2008 |access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref>

During and after the ICPD, some interested parties attempted to interpret the term "reproductive health" in the sense that it implies abortion as a means of family planning or, indeed, a right to abortion. These interpretations, however, do not reflect the consensus reached at the Conference.
For the European Union, where legislation on abortion is certainly less restrictive than elsewhere, the Council Presidency has clearly stated that the Council's commitment to promote "reproductive health" did not include the promotion of abortion.<ref>European Parliament, 4 December 2003: Oral Question (H-0794/03) for Question Time at the part-session in December 2003 pursuant to Rule 43 of the Rules of Procedure by Dana Scallon to the Council. In the written record of that session, one reads: Posselt (PPE-DE): "Does the term 'reproductive health' include the promotion of abortion, yes or no?" – Antonione, Council: "No."</ref> Likewise, the European Commission, in response to a question from a Member of the European Parliament, clarified:<ref>European Parliament, 24 October 2002: Question no 86 by Dana Scallon (H-0670/02)</ref>

<blockquote>The term reproductive health was defined by the United Nations (UN) in 1994 at the Cairo International Conference on Population and Development. All Member States of the Union endorsed the Programme of Action adopted at Cairo. The Union has never adopted an alternative definition of 'reproductive health' to that given in the Programme of Action, which makes no reference to abortion.</blockquote>

With regard to the U.S., only a few days prior to the Cairo Conference, the head of the U.S. delegation, Vice President Al Gore, had stated for the record:<ref>Jyoti Shankar Singh, Creating a New Consensus on Population (London: Earthscan, 1998), 60</ref>

<blockquote>Let us get a false issue off the table: the US does not seek to establish a new international right to abortion, and we do not believe that abortion should be encouraged as a method of family planning.</blockquote>

Some years later, the position of the U.S. administration in this debate was reconfirmed by U.S. Ambassador to the UN, [[Ellen Sauerbrey]], when she stated at a meeting of the UN Commission on the Status of Women that: "nongovernmental organizations are attempting to assert that Beijing in some way creates or contributes to the creation of an internationally recognized fundamental right to abortion".<ref>Lederer, AP/''San Francisco Chronicle'', 1 March 2005</ref> She added: "There is no fundamental right to abortion. And yet it keeps coming up largely driven by NGOs trying to hijack the term and trying to make it into a definition".<ref>Leopold, Reuters, 28 February 2005</ref>

Collaborative research from the [[Institute of Development Studies]] states that "access to safe abortion is a matter of human rights, democracy and public health, and the denial of such access is a major cause of death and impairment, with significant costs to [international] development".<ref name=IDS2009>{{cite journal|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/121649491/issue |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105065424/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/121649491/issue |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 January 2013 |title=Unsafe Abortion: A Development Issue |journal=Institute of Development Studies (IDS) Bulletin |volume=39 |date=July 2009 |issue=3}}</ref> The research highlights the inequities of access to safe abortion both globally and nationally and emphasises the importance of global and national movements for reform to address this. The shift by campaigners of reproductive rights from an issue-based agenda (the right to abortion), to safe, legal abortion not only as a human right, but bound up with democratic and citizenship rights, has been an important way of reframing the abortion debate and reproductive justice agenda.<ref name=IDS2009 />

Meanwhile, the [[European Court of Human Rights]] complicated the question even more through a landmark judgment (case of ''[[A. B. and C. v. Ireland]]''), in which it is stated that the denial of abortion for health and/or well-being reasons is an interference with an individual's right to respect for private and family life under Article 8 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]], an interference which in some cases can be justified.

===Population control===
{{See also|Population control}}
[[File:Nicolae Ceauşescu addressing his New Year's Eve message on tv and radio, 1. January 1978.jpg|thumb|[[Nicolae Ceaușescu]], Romanian communist leader, enacted one of the most infamous [[natalist]] policies of the 20th century]]
[[File:Danshan Nongguang Village Bulletin board.jpg|thumb|A community bulletin board in Nonguang Village, [[Sichuan province]], China, keeping track of the town's female population, listing recent births by name and noting that several thousand yuan of fines for unauthorized births remain unpaid from the previous year]]
A desire to achieve certain population targets has resulted throughout history in severely abusive practices, in cases where governments ignored human rights and enacted aggressive demographic policies. In the 20th century, several authoritarian governments have sought either to increase or to decrease the births rates, often through forceful intervention. One of the most notorious [[natalist]] policies is that which occurred in [[communist Romania]] in the period of 1967–1990 during communist leader [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]], who adopted a very aggressive natalist policy which included outlawing abortion and contraception, routine pregnancy tests for women, [[Tax on childlessness|taxes on childlessness]], and legal discrimination against childless people.  Ceaușescu's policy resulted in over 9,000 women who died due to [[illegal abortion]]s,<ref name="Kligman short">Kligman, Gail. "Political Demography: The Banning of Abortion in Ceausescu's Romania". In Ginsburg, Faye D.; Rapp, Rayna, eds. ''Conceiving the New World Order: The Global Politics of Reproduction.'' Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1995 :234–255. Unique Identifier : AIDSLINE KIE/49442.</ref> large numbers of children put into [[Romanian orphanages]] by parents who could not cope with raising them, [[street children]] in the 1990s (when many orphanages were closed and the children ended on the streets), and [[overcrowding]] in homes and schools. The irony of Ceaușescu's aggressive natalist policy was a generation that may not have been born would eventually lead the [[Romanian Revolution]] which would overthrow and have him [[Trial of Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu#Execution|executed]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Freakonomics|last=Levitt & Dubner|first=Steven & Stephen|publisher=Penguin Group|year=2005|isbn=9780141019017|location=80 Strand, London WC2R ORL England|page=107}}</ref>

In stark opposition with Ceaușescu's natalist policy was China's [[one child policy|one-child policy]], in effect from 1978 to 2015, which included abuses such as [[forced abortion]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-18435126 |title=China forced abortion photo sparks outrage – BBC News |journal=BBC News |date= 14 June 2012|access-date=11 March 2017}}</ref> This policy has also been deemed responsible for the common practice of [[sex-selective abortion]] which led to an imbalanced [[sex ratio]] in the country.<ref name="Bulte, Heerink, & Zhang, 2011">{{cite journal|author1=Bulte, E.|author2=Heerink, N.|author3=Zhang, X.|title=China's one-child policy and 'the mystery of missing women': ethnic minorities and male-biased sex ratios.|journal=Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics|year=2011|volume=73|issue=1|pages=0305–9049|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0084.2010.00601.x|s2cid=145107264}}</ref>

From the 1970s to 1980s, tension grew between women's health activists who advance women's reproductive rights as part of a human rights-based approach on the one hand, and population control advocates on the other.<ref>{{cite book |title=Reproductive Rights in a Global Context |last= Knudsen |first=Lara |year=2006 |publisher= Vanderbilt University Press |isbn=978-0-8265-1528-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/reproductiverigh0000knud/page/2 2] |url=https://archive.org/details/reproductiverigh0000knud |url-access=registration |quote=reproductive rights. }}</ref> At the 1984 UN World Population Conference in Mexico City population control policies came under attack from women's health advocates who argued that the policies' narrow focus led to coercion and decreased quality of care, and that these policies ignored the varied social and cultural contexts in which family planning was provided in developing countries. In the 1980s the HIV/AIDS epidemic forced a broader discussion of sex into the public discourse in many countries, leading to more emphasis on reproductive health issues beyond reducing fertility. The growing opposition to the narrow population control focus led to a significant departure in the early 1990s from past population control policies.<ref>{{cite book |title=Reproductive Rights in a Global Context |last= Knudsen |first=Lara |year=2006 |publisher= Vanderbilt University Press |isbn=978-0-8265-1528-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reproductiverigh0000knud/page/4 4]–5 |url=https://archive.org/details/reproductiverigh0000knud |url-access=registration |quote=reproductive rights. }}</ref>  In the United States, abortion opponents have begun to foment [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] about reproductive rights advocates, accusing them of advancing a [[Racism|racist]] agenda of [[eugenics]], and of trying to reduce the [[African American]] birth rate in the U.S.<ref name=Dewan>{{Cite news | last = Dewan | first = Shaila | title = To Court Blacks, Foes of Abortion Make Racial Case | newspaper = [[New York Times]] | date = 26 February 2010 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/27/us/27race.html | access-date = 7 June 2010 }}</ref>

===Female genital mutilation===
[[File:FGM prevalence UNICEF 2016.svg|thumb|Prevalence of FGM]]
[[Female genital mutilation]] (FGM) is defined as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons."<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/|title=Female genital mutilation|website=World Health Organization}}</ref> The procedure has no health benefits, and can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, cysts, infections, and complications in childbirth and increased risk of newborn deaths.<ref name="auto"/> It is performed for traditional, cultural or religious reasons in many parts of the world, especially in Africa, and in some parts of Asia, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Iraqi Kurdistan, and Yemen.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=13 December 2022 |archive-date=22 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522171154/https://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGMC_2016_brochure_final_UNICEF_SPREAD.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.stopfgmmideast.org/countries/malaysia/ | title=» Malaysia }}</ref> The [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence|Istanbul Convention]] prohibits FGM (Article 38).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rm.coe.int/168046031c |title=Archived copy |access-date=7 August 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170531114057/https://rm.coe.int/168046031c |archive-date=31 May 2017 }}</ref> It is estimated that 200 million women worldwide had undergone FGM, including at least 500,000 immigrant women in Europe.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_192 | title=Press corner }}</ref> [[Infibulation]], also referred to as Type 3 FGM,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation | title=Female genital mutilation }}</ref> is the most extreme form of FGM, and is practiced mainly in [[northeastern Africa]], particularly in [[Djibouti]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Somalia]], and [[Sudan]].<ref name=Yoder2008>{{cite web|last1=Yoder|first1=P. Stanley|last2=Khan|first2=Shane|date=March 2008|title=Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total|url=http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/WP39/WP39.pdf|publisher=USAID, DHS Working Papers|issue=39|pages=13–14}}</ref>

===Bride kidnapping or buying and reproductive slavery===
{{Main|Bride kidnapping|Bride price}}

[[File:Johann Moritz Rugendas-el rapto.jpg|thumb|left|The painting depicts a Chilean woman being kidnapped during a [[malón]]]]

[[Bride kidnapping]] or marriage by abduction, is the practice whereby a woman or girl is abducted for the purpose of a [[forced marriage]]. Bride kidnapping has been practiced historically in many parts of the world, and it continues to occur today in some places, especially in [[Central Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]], in countries such as Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia, as well as in Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kyrgyzstan-women-bride-kidnapping/one-in-five-girls-and-women-kidnapped-for-marriage-in-kyrgyzstan-study-idUSKBN1AH5GI | title=One in five girls and women kidnapped for marriage in Kyrgyzstan| journal=Reuters| date=August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-10913297 | title=Chechen stolen brides 'exorcised'| journal=BBC News| date=10 August 2010| last1=Ash| first1=Lucy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/kidnapped-raped-married-the-extraordinary-rebellion-of-ethiopias-abducted-wives-1922263.html | title=Kidnapped. Raped. Married. The extraordinary rebellion of Ethiopia's| website=[[Independent.co.uk]]| date=17 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4763185.stm#sa-link_location=story-body&intlink_from_url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-13681053&intlink_ts=1522860542128-sa | title=Ethiopian girls fear forced marriage| date=14 May 2006}}</ref> Bride kidnapping is often preceded or followed by rape (which may result in pregnancy), in order to force the marriage – a practice also supported by "[[marry-your-rapist law]]" (laws regarding sexual violence, abduction or similar acts, whereby the perpetrator avoids prosecution or punishment if he marries the victim<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mellen|first1=Ruby|title=The Rapist's Loophole: Marriage|journal=Foreign Policy|date=March–April 2017|issue=223|page=20}}</ref>). Abducting of women may happen on an individual scale or on a mass scale. [[Raptio]] is a Latin term referring to the large-scale abduction of women, usually for marriage or sexual slavery, particularly during wartime.

[[Bride price]], also called bridewealth, is money, property, or other form of wealth paid by a groom or his family to the parents of the woman he marries. The practice of bride price sometimes leads to parents selling young daughters into marriage and to trafficking.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Human+rights+groups+ask+NWFP+Govt.+to+ban+%27bride+price%27+to+curb+women...-a0216984357 | title=Human rights groups ask NWFP Govt. To ban 'bride price' to curb women Trafficking. – Free Online Library}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.islandsbusiness.com/news/index_dynamic/containerNameToReplace=MiddleMiddle/focusModuleID=130/focusContentID=26256/tableName=mediaRelease/overideSkinName=newsArticle-full.tpl | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130126135528/http://www.islandsbusiness.com/news/index_dynamic/containerNameToReplace=MiddleMiddle/focusModuleID=130/focusContentID=26256/tableName=mediaRelease/overideSkinName=newsArticle-full.tpl | url-status=dead | archive-date=26 January 2013 | title=Islands Business – PNG Police blame bride price for violence in marri...| date=26 January 2013}}</ref> Bride price is common across Africa.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33810273 | title=Bride price practices in Africa| journal=BBC News| date=6 August 2015}}</ref> Such forced marriages often lead to [[sexual violence]], and [[forced pregnancy]]. In [[northern Ghana]], for example, the payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control are at risks of threats and coercion.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bawah | first1 = Ayaga Agula | last2 = Akweongo | first2 = Patricia | last3 = Simmons | first3 = Ruth | last4 = Phillips | first4 = James F. | title = Women's fears and men's anxieties: the impact of family planning on gender relations in Northern Ghana | journal = [[Studies in Family Planning]] | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–66 | date = 1999 | url = https://www.popcouncil.org/research/womens-fears-and-mens-anxieties-the-impact-of-family-planning-on-gender-rel | doi=10.1111/j.1728-4465.1999.00054.x| pmid = 10216896 | hdl = 2027.42/73927 | hdl-access = free }} [http://www.popcouncil.org/uploads/pdfs/councilarticles/sfp/SFP301Bawah.pdf Pdf.]</ref>

The 1956 [[Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery]] defines "institutions and practices similar to slavery" to include:<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/SupplementaryConventionAbolitionOfSlavery.aspx | title=OHCHR &#124; Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery}}</ref>

c) Any institution or practice whereby:
* (i) A woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given in marriage on payment of a consideration in money or in kind to her parents, guardian, family or any other person or group; or
* (ii) The husband of a woman, his family, or his clan, has the right to transfer her to another person for value received or otherwise; or
* (iii) A woman on the death of her husband is liable to be inherited by another person;

===Sperm donation===
{{Further|Sperm donation|Sperm donor limitation by country}}
Laws in many countries and states require [[sperm donation|sperm donors]] to be either anonymous or known to the recipient, or the laws restrict the number of children each donor may father. Although many donors choose to remain anonymous, new [[technologies]] such as the Internet and DNA technology have opened up new avenues for those wishing to know more about the biological father, siblings and half-siblings.

===Compulsory sterilization===
[[File:SOU 1929 14 Betänkande med förslag till steriliseringslag s 57 Laughlin.jpg|250px|thumb|right|A map from a 1929 Swedish royal commission report displays the U.S. states that had implemented sterilization legislation by then]]
{{Main|Compulsory sterilization}}
{{See also|Chemical castration|Eugenics}}

====Ethnic minority women====
{{Further|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Roma people|}}
Ethnic minority women have often been victims of forced sterilization programs, such as [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian women]] in parts of Latin America of [[Roma people|Roma women]].

In [[Peru]], President [[Alberto Fujimori]] (in office from 1990 to 2000) has been accused of [[genocide]] and [[crimes against humanity]] as a result of the ''[[Programa Nacional de Población]]'', a sterilization program put in place by his administration.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news | title=Mass sterilization scandal shocks Peru | date=24 July 2002 | access-date=30 April 2006 | work=[[BBC News]] | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2148793.stm | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630062037/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2148793.stm | archive-date=30 June 2006 }}</ref> During his presidency, Fujimori put in place a program of forced sterilizations against [[Indigenous peoples in Peru|indigenous people]] (mainly the [[Quechua people|Quechuas]] and the [[Aymara people|Aymaras]]), in the name of a "[[public health]] plan", presented on 28 July 1995.

During the 20th century, forced sterilization of [[Romani people|Roma]] women in European countries, especially in former Communist countries, was practiced,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8375960.stm |title=Czech regret over sterilisation |work=BBC News |date=24 November 2009 |access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://popdev.hampshire.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/u4763/DT+71+Albert.pdf|title=PopDev|website=popdev.hampshire.edu}}</ref> and there are allegations that these practices continue unofficially in some countries, such as Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania.<ref>{{cite news|last=Denysenko |first=Marina |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6409699.stm |title=Europe &#124; Sterilised Roma accuse Czechs |work=BBC News |date=12 March 2007 |access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.romea.cz/en/news/czech/kocab-draws-attention-to-the-forced-sterilization-of-romani-women-most-recent-incident-allegedly-took-place-in-2007 |title=Kocáb draws attention to the forced sterilization of Romani women; most recent incident allegedly took place in 2007 |publisher=Romea.cz |date=21 July 2009 |access-date=17 February 2015}}</ref> In ''[[V. C. vs. Slovakia]]'', the [[European Court for Human Rights]] ruled in favor of a Roma woman who was the victim of forced sterilization in a state hospital in [[Slovakia]] in 2000.<ref>[http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-107364#{%22itemid%22:%22001-107364%22]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301223751/http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-107364|date=1 March 2014}}</ref>

====United States====
{{Further|Eugenics in the United States|Sterilization law in the United States}}
Forced sterilization in the United States was practiced starting with the 19th century. The United States during the [[Progressive era]], ca. 1890 to 1920, was the first country to concertedly undertake compulsory sterilization programs for the purpose of [[eugenics]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Iredale | first1 = Rachel | year = 2000 | title = Eugenics And Its Relevance To Contemporary Health Care | journal = Nursing Ethics | volume = 7 | issue = 3| pages = 205–14| doi = 10.1177/096973300000700303 | pmid = 10986944 | s2cid = 37888613 }}</ref> [[Thomas C. Leonard]], professor at Princeton University, describes American eugenics and sterilization as ultimately rooted in economic arguments and further as a central element of Progressivism alongside wage controls, restricted immigration, and the introduction of [[pension]] programs.<ref name="Leonard2005">{{cite journal | last1 = Leonard | first1 = Thomas C. | year = 2005 | title = Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era | url = https://www.princeton.edu/%7Etleonard/papers/retrospectives.pdf | journal = [[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 207–224 | doi = 10.1257/089533005775196642 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161218214328/http://www.princeton.edu/~tleonard/papers/retrospectives.pdf | archive-date = 18 December 2016 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The heads of the programs were avid proponents of eugenics and frequently argued for their programs, which achieved some success nationwide, mainly in the first half of the 20th century.

====Canada====
{{Main|Compulsory sterilization in Canada}}
Compulsory sterilization has been practiced historically in parts of Canada. Two Canadian provinces ([[Alberta]] and [[British Columbia]]) performed compulsory sterilization programs in the 20th century with eugenic aims. Canadian compulsory sterilization operated via the same overall mechanisms of [[institutionalization]], [[judgment]], and [[surgery]] as the American system.  However, one notable difference is in the treatment of non-insane criminals. Canadian legislation never allowed for punitive sterilization of inmates.

The ''[[Sexual Sterilization Act]]'' of Alberta was enacted in 1928 and repealed in 1972. In 1995, [[Leilani Muir]] sued the Province of Alberta for forcing her to be sterilized against her will and without her permission in 1959. Since Muir's case, the Alberta government has apologized for the forced sterilization of over 2,800 people. Nearly 850 Albertans who were sterilized under the ''Sexual Sterilization Act'' were awarded {{CAD|142}} million in damages.<ref>{{cite news|last=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC)|title=Alberta Apologizes for Forced Sterilization|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/alberta-apologizes-for-forced-sterilization-1.169579|access-date=19 June 2013|date=9 November 1999|work=[[CBC News]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123020740/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/1999/11/02/sterilize991102.html|archive-date=23 November 2012}}</ref><ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=1VoyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kecFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5397%2C1039102 Victims of sterilization finally get day in court. Lawrence Journal-World. 23 December 1996.]</ref>

===Roman Catholic Church===
{{Further|Roman Catholicism in Latin America}}
[[File:CIA_map_of_Central_America.png|thumb|[[Central America]] has very strict anti-abortion laws, and [[El Salvador]] has come to international attention due to its forceful enforcement.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web | url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58299 | title=UN rights office urges el Salvador to reform 'draconian' abortion laws| date=15 December 2017}}</ref><ref name="reuters.com">{{Cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-el-salvador-abortion/u-n-calls-on-el-salvador-to-stop-jailing-women-for-abortion-idUSKBN1DI001 | title=U.N. Calls on el Salvador to stop jailing women for abortion| journal=Reuters| date=18 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32480443 | title=The mothers being criminalised in el Salvador| journal=BBC News| date=28 April 2015| last1=Watson| first1=Katy}}</ref>]]
The [[Catholic Church]] is opposed to artificial contraception, abortion, and [[Premarital sex|sexual intercourse outside marriage]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=gen%2038:8-10&version=NIV|title=Gen 38:8–10 NIV – Then Judah said to Onan, "Sleep with – Bible Gateway|work=Bible Gateway|access-date=14 February 2016}}</ref> This belief dates back to the first centuries of Christianity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/contraception-and-sterilization|title=Contraception and Sterilization|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131124143807/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/contraception-and-sterilization|archive-date=24 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="therealpresence1">{{cite web|url=http://www.therealpresence.org/archives/Abortion_Euthanasia/Abortion_Euthanasia_004.htm|title=Fr. Hardon Archives – The Catholic Tradition on the Morality of Contraception}}</ref> While Roman Catholicism is not the only religion with such views, its religious doctrine is very powerful in influencing countries where most of the population is Catholic, and the few countries of the world with complete bans on abortion are mostly Catholic-majority countries,<ref name="ChileCourt" /> and in Europe strict restrictions on abortion exist in the Catholic majority countries of [[Abortion in Malta|Malta]] (complete ban), [[Abortion in Andorra|Andorra]], [[Abortion in San Marino|San Marino]], [[Abortion in Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]] and to a lesser extent [[Abortion in Poland|Poland]] and [[Abortion in Monaco|Monaco]].

In France, a country with a Roman Catholic tradition, abortionist [[Marie-Louise Giraud]] was [[guillotined]] on 30 July 1943 under the authoritarian [[Vichy France|Vichy regime]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 30, 2016 |title=1943: Marie-Louise Giraud, Vichy abortionist |url=https://www.executedtoday.com/2016/07/30/1943-marie-louise-giraud-vichy-abortionist/ |access-date=June 13, 2023 |website=ExecutedToday.com}}</ref>

Some of the countries of [[Central America]], notably [[Abortion in El Salvador|El Salvador]], have also come to international attention due to very forceful enforcement of the anti-abortion laws.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/07/el-salvador-rape-survivor-sentenced-to-30-years-in-jail-under-extreme-anti-abortion-law/|title=El Salvador: Rape survivor sentenced to 30 years in jail under extreme anti-abortion law|website=www.amnesty.org|date=6 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-latin-america-32491838/el-salvador-women-jailed-for-miscarriages|title=Jailed for a miscarriage|work=BBC News}}</ref> El Salvador has received repeated criticism from the UN. The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) named the law "one of the most draconian abortion laws in the world", and urged liberalization,<ref name="ReferenceB"/> and [[Prince Zeid bin Ra'ad|Zeid bin Ra'ad]], the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, stated that he was "appalled that as a result of El Salvador's absolute prohibition on abortion, women are being punished for apparent miscarriages and other obstetric emergencies, accused and convicted of having induced termination of pregnancy".<ref name="reuters.com"/>

===Anti-abortion violence===
Criticism surrounds certain forms of anti-abortion activism. [[Anti-abortion violence]] is a serious issue in some parts of the world, especially in North America.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2015/11/30/us/anti-abortion-violence/index.html|title=A brief history of anti-abortion violence|first=Kimberly|last=Hutcherson|website=CNN|date=30 November 2015|access-date=10 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jelen |first= Ted G |year=1998 |url=http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/abortion.htm |title=Abortion |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion and Society |location=Walnut Creek, California |publisher=AltaMira Press}}</ref> It is recognized as [[single-issue terrorism]].<ref name="csis">{{cite web |author=Smith, G. Davidson (Tim) |publisher=Canadian Security Intelligence Service |year=1998 |url=http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/en/publications/commentary/com74.asp |title=Single Issue Terrorism Commentary |access-date=9 June 2006| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060714173515/http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/en/publications/commentary/com74.asp| archive-date= 14 July 2006}}</ref> Numerous organizations have also recognized anti-abortion extremism as a form of [[Christian terrorism]].<ref name="interfaith">*{{Cite book |title=Religion and terrorism: an interfaith perspective |first=Aref M. |last=Al-Khattar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V1xukwRq2cUC&pg=PA58 |pages=58–59 |year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780275969233 }}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSzyEx4do48C&pg=PA116 |title=Inside terrorism |first=Bruce |last=Hoffman |year=2006 |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=116 |author-link=Bruce Hoffman|isbn=9780231510462 }}
* {{Cite book |first=Christopher C. |last=Harmon |title=Terrorism today |year=2000 |publisher=Psychology Press |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4AYGALitgsC&pg=PA42|isbn=9780714649986 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Terror in the mind of God: the global rise of religious violence |first=Mark |last=Juergensmeyer |author-link=Mark Juergensmeyer |page=4,19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpb1mbaHjGQC&pg=PA19 |year=2003 |publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520240117 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Handbook of death & dying, Volume 1 |first=Clifton D. |last=Bryant | author-link= Clifton D. Bryant | page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3z9EpgisKOgC&pg=PA243 |publisher=SAGE |year=2003|isbn=9780761925149 }}
* {{Cite book |title=The Dialogue Comes of Age: Christian Encounters with Other Traditions |publisher=Fortress Press |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mbqpcg29LYsC&pg=PA90 |year=2010 |first=Ward M. |last=McAfee|isbn=9781451411157 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Introduction to geopolitics |year=2006 |publisher=Psychology Press |first=Colin Robert |last=Flint |page=172 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4G4lsXFE9bUC&pg=PA172|isbn=9780203503768 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Humanity: an introduction to cultural anthropology |last1=Peoples |first1=James |first2=Garrick |last2=Bailey |publisher=Cengage |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBPZ3wfYEF0C&pg=PA371 |page=371|isbn=978-0495508748 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Dolnik |first1=Adam |first2=Rohan |last2=Gunaratna |author-link2=Rohan Gunaratna |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZIXOlW7pgwC&pg=PA82 |title=The politics of terrorism: a survey |year=2006 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |chapter=On the Nature of Religious Terrorism|isbn=9780203832011 }}
* ''The terrorism ahead: confronting transnational violence in the twenty-first century'',  Paul J. Smith, p 94
* ''Religion and Politics in America: The Rise of Christian Evangelists'',  Muhammad Arif Zakaullah, p 109
* ''Terrorism: An Investigator's Handbook'',  William E. Dyson, p 43
* ''Encyclopedia of terrorism'',  Cindy C. Combs, Martin W. Slann, p 13
* ''Armed for Life: The Army of God and Anti-Abortion Terror in the United States'',  Jennifer Jefferis, p 40</ref>

Incidents include vandalism, arson, and bombings of [[abortion clinic]]s, such as those committed by [[Eric Rudolph]] (1996{{ndash}}98), and murders or attempted murders of physicians and clinic staff, as committed by [[James Charles Kopp|James Kopp]] (1998), [[Paul Jennings Hill]] (1994), [[Scott Roeder]] (2009), [[Michael F. Griffin]] (1993), and [[Peter James Knight]] (2001).
Since 1978, in the US, anti-abortion violence includes at least 11 [[murder]]s of medical staff, 26 [[attempted murder]]s, 42 [[bombing]]s, and 187 [[arson]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/abortion-clinic-violence-trespassing-death-threats-national-abortion-federation-a8340471.html|title=Threats of violence against US abortion clinics almost doubled in 2017, industry group says|date=7 May 2018|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=19 June 2019}}</ref>