Editing Wolf (section)

=== Conflicts ===

Human presence appears to stress wolves, as seen by increased [[cortisol]] levels in instances such as snowmobiling near their territory.<ref name=Creel/>

==== Predation on livestock ====

[[File:The Allendale Wolf.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Black and white photograph of a dead wolf with "The Allendale Wolf" written on the bottom|A 1905 postcard of the [[Hexham wolf]], an escaped wolf shot for killing livestock in England]]

Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation. As well as causing economic losses, the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers, and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=305}} Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programs or state insurance.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=309}} Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves, as they have been bred under constant human protection, and are thus unable to defend themselves very well.{{sfn|Mech|1981|p=173}} Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Levy|first=Max G.|date=December 11, 2020|title=These Non-Lethal Methods Encouraged by Science Can Keep Wolves From Killing Livestock|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/these-non-lethal-methods-encouraged-science-can-keep-wolves-killing-livestock-180976505/|access-date=2020-12-16|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref> In Eurasia, a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock, while such incidents are rare in North America, where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=305}}

The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period, untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=307}} The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep (Europe), [[Reindeer herding|domestic reindeer]] (northern Scandinavia), [[goat]]s (India), [[horse]]s (Mongolia), [[cattle]] and [[Domestic turkey|turkeys]] (North America).{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=305}} The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species: most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death, while turkeys, sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=306}} Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing, though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures.{{sfn|Graves|2007|p=45}}

==== Competition with dogs ====

A review of the studies on the competitive effects of dogs on [[Sympatry|sympatric]] carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves.<ref name=Vanak2014/><ref name=Lescureaux2014 /> Competition would favour the wolf, which is known to kill dogs; however, wolves usually live in pairs or in small packs in areas with high human persecution, giving them a disadvantage when facing large groups of dogs.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 /><ref name=Boitani1983/>

Wolves kill dogs on occasion, and some wolf populations rely on dogs as an important food source. In Croatia, wolves kill more dogs than sheep, and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations. Wolves may display unusually bold behaviour when attacking dogs accompanied by people, sometimes ignoring nearby humans. Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests. Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|p=305}}<ref name="Jess" /> Although the number of dogs killed each year by wolves is relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to prey on them. In many cultures, dogs are seen as family members, or at least working team members, and losing one can lead to strong emotional responses such as demanding more liberal hunting regulations.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 />

Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human–wolf conflicts, and are often proposed as one of the non-lethal tools in the conservation of wolves.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 /><ref name=Shivik2006/> Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive, but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviours, such as barking, social greeting, invitation to play or aggression. The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation,<ref name=Lescureaux2014 /><ref name=Coppinger1995 /> especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock guardian dogs.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 /><ref name=Espuno2004/> Shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves.<ref name=Lescureaux2014 />

==== Attacks on humans ====

{{Main|Wolf attack|List of wolf attacks}}
[[File:Petits Paysans surpris par un loup.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of a wolf snarling at three children|''Country children surprised by a wolf'' (1833) by François Grenier de Saint-Martin]]

The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies, though humans are not part of the wolf's natural prey.<ref name="Linnell" /> How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people: wolves lacking any negative experience of humans, or which are food-conditioned, may show little fear of people.{{sfn|Mech|Boitani|2003|pp=300–304}} Although wolves may react aggressively when provoked, such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities, and the attacks are not pressed.<ref name="Linnell"/>

Predatory attacks may be preceded by a long period of [[habituation]], in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans. The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face, and are then dragged off and consumed unless the wolves are driven off. Such attacks typically occur only locally and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated. Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year, with a peak in the June–August period, when the chances of people entering forested areas (for livestock [[grazing]] or berry and mushroom picking) increase.<ref name="Linnell" /> Cases of non-rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in [[Belarus]], [[Kirov Oblast|Kirov]] and [[Irkutsk Oblast|Irkutsk]] oblasts, [[Karelia]] and [[Ukraine]]. Also, wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period.{{sfn|Heptner|Naumov|1998|pp=164–270}} The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and, in the rare cases where adults are killed, the victims are almost always women.<ref name="Linnell" /> Indian wolves have a history of preying on children, a phenomenon called "child-lifting". They may be taken primarily in the spring and summer periods during the evening hours, and often within human settlements.<ref name="Rajpurohit1999"/>

Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species, as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease, but can be infected by animals such as dogs, jackals and foxes. Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America, though numerous in the eastern [[Mediterranean]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]]. Wolves apparently develop the "furious" phase of rabies to a very high degree. This, coupled with their size and strength, makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals.<ref name="Linnell" /> Bites from rabid wolves are 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs.{{sfn|Heptner|Naumov|1998|p=267}} Rabid wolves usually act alone, travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals. Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods. Unlike with predatory attacks, the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten, and the attacks generally occur only on a single day. The victims are chosen at random, though most cases involve adult men. During the fifty years up to 2002, there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia, and more than two hundred in southern Asia.<ref name="Linnell" />

====Human hunting of wolves ====

{{Main|Wolf hunting|Wolf hunting with dogs}}
{{See also|Wolf hunting#Quarry|l1=Human uses of hunted wolves}}
[[File:Provedenie meropriyatii po otstrelu vrednyh givotnyh na territorii Kamyshinskogo raiona Volgogradskoi oblasti.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men with guns behind nine carcasses of hunted wolves|Carcasses of hunted wolves in [[Volgograd Oblast]], Russia]]

[[Theodore Roosevelt]] said wolves are difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness, sharp senses, high endurance, and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs.<ref name="Roosevelt"/> Historic methods included killing of spring-born litters in their dens, [[coursing]] with dogs (usually combinations of [[sighthound]]s, [[Bloodhound]]s and [[Fox Terrier]]s), poisoning with [[strychnine]], and [[trapping]].{{sfn|Lopez|1978|p=108}}{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=121–140}}

A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with [[fladry]] poles carrying a human scent. This method relies heavily on the wolf's fear of human scents, though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the odor. Some hunters can lure wolves by imitating their calls. In [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Mongolia]], wolves are traditionally [[falconry|hunted using]] [[Golden eagles in human culture#Falconry|eagles]] and large falcons, though this practice is declining, as experienced falconers are becoming few in number. Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective, due to increased visibility and direct lines of fire.{{sfn|Graves|2007|pp=121–140}} Several types of dog, including the [[Borzoi]] and [[Taigan|Kyrgyz Tajgan]], have been specifically bred for wolf hunting.<ref name=Lescureaux2014/>