Editing International development (section)

==History==
Although [[international relations]] and [[international trade]] have existed for thousands of years, it is only in the past century that international development theory emerged as a separate body of ideas.<ref>Worsley, P. ''Culture and Development Theory'', in Skelton, T. and Allen, T. (1999)</ref> More specifically, it has been suggested that 'the theory and practice of development is inherently [[Technocracy (bureaucratic)|technocratic]], and remains rooted in the [[High modernism|high modernist]] period of political thought that existed in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War'.<ref>Barlett (2007)</ref> Throughout the 20th century, before the concept of international development became a common word, four aspects were used to describe the idea:
* political and economic liberalism, and the significance of "free markets"
* social evolution in extremely hierarchical environment
* Marxist critiques of class and imperialism
* anti-colonial take on cultural differences and national self-determination<ref name="Development pp. 155-156" />

===After World War II===
The second half of the 20th century has been called the 'era of development'.<ref>Thomas, A. ''Poverty and the end of development'' in Allen, Thomas (2000)</ref> The origins of this era have been attributed to
* the need for reconstruction in the immediate aftermath of [[World War II]]<ref>Browne (1990)</ref>
* the evolution of [[colonialism]] or "colonization" into [[globalization]] and the establishment of new [[free trade]] policies between so-called 'developed' and 'underdeveloped' nations<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Donkor |first=Martha |date=2005 |title=Marching to the Tune: Colonization, Globalization, Immigration, and the Ghanaian Diaspora |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/at.2005.0054 |journal=Africa Today |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=27–44 |doi=10.1353/at.2005.0054 |s2cid=145395652 |issn=1527-1978|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* the start of the [[Cold War]] and the desire of the United States and its allies to prevent the [[Third World]] from drifting towards [[communism]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lorenzini |first=Sara |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691180151/global-development |title=Global Development |date=2019-09-03 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18015-1 |language=en}}</ref>

International Development in its very meaning is geared towards colonies that gained independence. The governance of the newly independent states should be constructed so that the inhabitants enjoy freedom from poverty, hunger, and insecurity.<ref name="idrc.ca" />

It has been argued that this era was launched on January 20, 1949, when [[Harry S. Truman]] made these remarks in his inaugural address<ref>Esteva, G. ''Development'', in Sachs (1992)</ref>

{{Cquote|We must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas. The old imperialism—exploitation for foreign profit—has no place in our plans. What we envisage is a program of development based on the concept of democratic fair dealing.
| author = Harry S. Truman, 1949
}}

Before this date, however, the United States had already taken a leading role in the creation of the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (now part of the [[World Bank Group]]) and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), both established in 1944, and in the [[United Nations]] in 1945.

The launch of the [[Marshall Plan]] was another important step in setting the agenda for international development, combining humanitarian goals with the creation of a political and economic bloc in Europe that was allied to the U.S. This agenda was given conceptual support during the 1950s in the form of [[modernization theory]] espoused by [[Walt Rostow]] and other American economists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tören |first=Tolga |date=2018 |title=The Role of Modernization Theory in the Reconstruction of International Labour Movement in the Cold War Period: Lessons for Today |journal=Political Economy of Labour Income Distribution and Exclusion |volume=15}}</ref> The changes in the 'developed' world's approach to international development were further necessitated by the gradual collapse of Western Europe's empires over the next decades; now independent ex-colonies no longer received support in return for their subordinate role.

By the late 1960s, [[dependency theory]] arose analysing the evolving relationship between the West and the Third World.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahiakpor |first=James C. W. |date=1985 |title=The success and failure of dependency theory: the experience of Ghana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020818300019172 |journal=International Organization |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=535–552 |doi=10.1017/s0020818300019172 |s2cid=154491620 |issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In the 1970s and early 1980s, the modernists at the World Bank and IMF adopted the neoliberal ideas of economists such as [[Milton Friedman]] or [[Béla Balassa]], which were implemented in the form of [[structural adjustment programs]],<ref>Todaro, MP and Smith, SC. 2009. Economic Development, 10th Ed. Addison-Wesley, Essex, England. {{ISBN|978-1-4058-7424-3}}</ref> while their opponents were promoting various 'bottom-up' approaches, ranging from [[civil disobedience]] and [[critical consciousness]] to [[appropriate technology]] and [[Rapid Rural Appraisal]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}}

In response, various parts of the UN system led a counter movement, which in the long run has proved to be successful.{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} They were led initially by the [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO), influenced by Paul Streeten, then by [[United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund]] (UNICEF).<ref>Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Richard Jolly and Frances Stewart, Adjustment with a Human Face</ref> Then [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) put forward the concept of Human Development, thanks to Mahboub ul Haq and [[Amartya Sen]], thus changing the nature of the development dialogue to focus on human needs and capabilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nations |first=United |date=2015-02-19 |title=What is Human Development? |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/what-human-development |language=en}}</ref>

By the 1990s, there were some writers for whom development theory had reached an impasse<ref>Schuurman (1993)</ref> and some academics were "imagining a postdevelopment era".<ref>Escobar (1995)</ref><ref>Fukuyama (1992)</ref> The Cold War had ended, capitalism had become the dominant mode of social organization, and UN statistics showed that living standards around the world had improved over the past 40 years.<ref>Wroe, Doney (2005)</ref> Nevertheless, a large portion of the world's population were still living in [[poverty]], their governments were crippled by [[Developing countries' debt|debt]] and concerns about the environmental impact of [[globalization]] were rising.

In response to the impasse, the rhetoric of development is now focusing on the issue of poverty, with the [[metanarrative]] of modernization being replaced by shorter-term vision embodied by the [[Millennium Development Goals]] and the [[Human development (humanity)|Human Development]] approach.<ref>[[Rorden Wilkinson]] and [[David Hulme (academic)|David Hulme]] (eds.), The Millennium Development Goals and Beyond: Global Development after 2015, (London: Routledge, 2012).</ref> At the same time, some development agencies are exploring opportunities for [[public-private partnerships]] and promoting the idea of [[Corporate social responsibility]] with the apparent aim of integrating international development with the process of economic globalization.<ref>Utting (2003)</ref>

The critics have suggested that this integration has always been part of the underlying agenda of development.<ref>Korten (1995)</ref> They argue that poverty can be equated with powerlessness and that the way to overcome poverty is through emancipatory [[social movements]] and [[civil society]], not paternalistic aid programmes or corporate charity.<ref>Parfitt (2002)</ref>

While some critics have been debating the ''end of development'' others have predicted a development revival as part of the [[War on Terrorism]]. To date, however, there is limited evidence to support the notion that aid budgets are being used to counter Islamic fundamentalism in the same way that they were used 40 years ago to counter communism.<ref>Moss, Roodman and Standley (2005)</ref>