Editing Mbula language (section)

====Morpho-syntactic features====
''Demonstrative pronouns and spatial deictic expressions''<br>
Mangap-Mbula has three different free [[Demonstrative|demonstrative pronouns]] which do not differentiate between [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]:

{| {{table}}
|+ Table 1. Demonstratives.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}}
|-
| {{lang|mna|iŋgi}} || this one/these ones
|-
| {{lang|mna|ina}} || that one/those ones
|-
| {{lang|mna|iŋga}} || that one over there, those ones over there
|}

In Example 1,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}} {{lang|mna|iŋgi}} is a free demonstrative used situationally and functions as a modifier of a singular noun phrase, as it is introducing the 'younger brother'. Additionally, {{lang|mna|iŋgi}} also has two other functions. The first is as the [[Adverbial phrase|modal adverb]] meaning 'this is true now', and the second as a [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] part of the demonstratives {{lang|mna|tiŋgi}} and {{lang|mna|taiŋgi}}.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}}

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|iŋgi nio tizi-ŋ.
|this.one NOM.1SG younger.sibling-GEN.1SG
|This is my younger brother.
|lang=mna}}

{{lang|mna|Ina}} functions similarly to the third person [[pronoun]]s {{lang|mna|ni}} and {{lang|mna|zin}}. It is frequently being used to refer to non-humans, and its main function is to reestablish a participant, who has already been introduced, as a topic or to single them out.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}} In Example 2,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}} {{lang|mna|ina}} is referring to two non-human, singular entities: the wallaby and the tree kangaroo. As the direct translation for each of these entities were not mentioned here, it can be inferred that they are both used anaphorically.

{{interlinear|lang=mna|number=(2)
|Wa ma la ma so{{=}}be me ti-se ki ta-sa na, reo. Pa ina, so{{=}}be me mboŋ, to-na ti-kam{{=}}i. Mi so{{=}}be me tau napumon{{=}}i na, ina i-rao ti-kam{{=}}i som.
|2SG+walk+RED and 2SG+go and say{{=}}NF dog 3PL-ascend LOC SPEC-{{gcl|NON.REF|non-referential}} GIV 2SG+look for that.on say{{=}}NF dog hunter then-GIV 3PL-get{{=}}ACC.3SG and say{{=}}NF dog SPEC bad.hunter{{=}}PROX GIV that.one 3SG-able 3PL-get{{=}}ACC.3SG NEG
|You keep walking until the dogs happen to come upon one (a wallaby), and then look out. For it ({{=}}the wallaby), he dogs, if they are good hunters, then they will get it. But if they are bad hunters, then it (the tree kangaroo), they will not be able to get it.
}}

In Example 3,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=110}} {{lang|mna|iŋga}} is a free demonstrative used situationally and conveys two pieces of information: (1) the entity to which it is referring to, and (2) its location in reference to the speaker (i.e. a place adverb).

{{interlinear|number=(3)
|Iŋga i-kaam so?
|that.one.over.there 3SG-do+RED what
|What is that one/thing over there doing?
|lang=mna}}

''Locative adverbial forms''<br>
In Mangap-Mbula, there are no differences between [[Deixis|deictic expressions]] that denote [[noun phrase]]s and ones that denote location in sentences. Thus, they are considered as being a single form class.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=154}}

{{interlinear|number=(4)
|Ti-kam uraata taŋga.
|3PL-do work over.there
|They worked over there.
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(5)
|Ruumu taŋga i-saana kek.
|house over.there 3SG-deteriorate PERF
|That house over there is ruined.
|lang=mna}}

In Examples 4 and 5,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=154}} {{lang|mna|taŋga}} is used situationally as a place adverb for where a group of people work and where in relation to the speaker, is the house located, respectively.

''Problems with [[Preposition and postposition|prepositions]]''

{{interlinear|number=(6)
|Zin ti-kam uraata taŋga
|NOM.3PL 3PL-do work over.there
|They worked
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(7)
|Zin ti-kam uraata meleebe
|NOM.3PL 3PL-do work below
|They worked
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(8)
|Zin ti-kam uraata pa lele toro
|NOM.3PL 3PL-do work in another place
|They worked
|lang=mna}}

Examples 6, 7, and 8{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=155}} demonstrate that the demonstrative {{lang|mna|taŋga}} and the adverbial {{lang|mna|meleebe}} are [[Semantics|semantically]] and positionally similar to the preposition phrase {{lang|mna|pa lele toro}}. This resemblance suggests that both could potentially fall under the same category of prepositional phrases, which further suggests that prepositions could be split into a [[Transitive verb|transitive]] (location adverbs and demonstratives) and [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]] (true prepositions) sub-category.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=155}} However, viewing things this way could have two issues: (1) the adverbial {{lang|mna|meleebe}} would have to be left as being noun phrase modifiers, but this could be due to the semantics; (2) the noun phrase shows the demonstrative occurring after the 'true' prepositiona' phrase with the noun phrase complement. But if both are deemed as coming from the [[Syntax|syntactic]] group, why then would there be an ordering restriction? As a result of these problems, a demonstrative form class is recognised.

''Noun phrases''

{{interlinear|number=(9)
|man tatariigi ta-na
|bird chicken SPEC-GIV
|that chicken
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(10)
|moori sa ta-na
|female {{gcl|NON.REF|non-referential}} SPEC.GIV
|that (hypothetical) woman (about whom I am talking)
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(11)
|ke ta nu mbotmbot pa ta-na
|tree SPEC NOM.2SG 2SG+stay+RED REF SPEC-GIV
|that tree where you are staying
|lang=mna}}

In the examples given above,{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|pp=199, 200}} {{lang|mna|ta-na}} is used situationally as a [[determiner]] for either the chicken (Example 9), the woman (Example 10) or the tree (Example 11). {{lang|mna|Ta}} refers to the specific entity (i.e. 'that'), and {{lang|mna|na}} refers to the entity that has already been revealed in the sentence. In Example 10 however, the woman is not present situationally, but is referred to hypothetically.

There are two functions of {{lang|mna|tana}}: (1) as a demonstrative, or (2) to convey reason-result sequences. They are [[homophone]]s. The demonstrative denotes (1) entities that are accessible or nearby the speaker and (2) textually revealed participants.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=296}}

''Motion [[verb]]s''

Similar to many other Oceanic languages, Mangap-Mbula makes a three-way distinction depending on relative space: near speaker, near hearer or near neither.{{sfn|Ross|2004|p=177}} This sense of deictic orientation can be conveyed in motion verbs through the use of [[suffix]]es. These verbs often compound the [[Root (linguistics)|root]] (which states the spatial positioning of motion) and the deictic orientation of motion in regards to the speaker and listener.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=168}} This is shown in Table 2.{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=168}}

{| {{table}}
|+ Table 2. Motion verb stems.
|-
! || Towards Speaker || Towards Hearer, not Towards Speaker || Towards neither Speaker nor Hearer
|-
| unoriented || {{lang|mna|-mar}} || {{lang|mna|-ma}} || {{lang|mna|-la}}
|-
| up || {{lang|mna|-se}} || {{lang|mna|-sa -ma}} || {{lang|mna|-sa-la}}
|-
| down || {{lang|mna|-su}} || {{lang|mna|-su -ma}} || {{lang|mna|-su-la}}
|-
| inwards || {{lang|mna|-le}} || {{lang|mna|-le -ma}} || {{lang|mna|-le-la}}
|-
| outwards || {{lang|mna|-pet}} || {{lang|mna|-pet-ma}} || {{lang|mna|-pe-ra}}
|}

These are some examples:{{sfn|Bugenhagen|1995|p=168}}

{{interlinear|number=(12)
|Ni ko i-su.
|NOM.3SG UC 3SG-descend
|He will come down to me.
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(13)
|Nio ko aŋ-ma Mande.
|NOM.1SG UC 1SG-come.to.you Monday
|I will come to you on Monday.
|lang=mna}}

{{interlinear|number=(14)
|Nio ko aŋ-su-ma.
|NOM.1SG UC 1SG-descend-come.to.you
|I will come down to you.
|lang=mna}}

These are all examples of [[Bound and free morphemes|bound]] deictic morphemes.