Editing Cheyenne language (section)

==Grammar==
Cheyenne is a [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] [[polysynthetic language]] with a sophisticated, [[Agglutinating language|agglutinating]] verb system contrasting a relatively simple noun structure.{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=338}}  Many Cheyenne verbs can stand alone in sentences, and can be translated by complete English sentences.  Aside from its verb structure, Cheyenne has several grammatical features that are typical of Algonquian languages, including an animate/inanimate [[noun class]]ification paradigm, an obviative third person and distinction of [[clusivity]] in the first person plural pronoun.{{sfn|Mithun|1999|pp=338-340}}

===Order and mode===
Like all Algonquian languages, Cheyenne shows a highly developed modal paradigm.{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=172}}  Algonquianists traditionally describe the inflections of verbs in these languages as being divided into three "orders," with each order further subdivided into a series of "modes," each of which communicates some aspect of modality.{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=172}}{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=24}}{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=243}} The charts below provide examples of verb forms of every order in each mode, after Leman (2011){{sfn|Leman|2011|pp=24-42}} and Mithun (1999).{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=172}}

====Independent order====
This order governs both declarative and interrogative statements. The modes of this order are generally subdivided along lines of [[evidentiality]].{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=243}}

{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 140px;" | Mode
! style="width: 150px;" | Example
! style="width: 130px;" | Translation
|-
|-
|Indicative
|{{Lang|chy|épėhêvahe}}
|'he is good'
|-
|Interrogative
|{{Lang|chy|épėhêvȧhehe}}
|'is he good?'
|-
|Inferential
|{{Lang|chy|mópėhêvȧhehêhe}}
|'he must be good'
|-
|Attributive
|{{Lang|chy|épėhêvahesėstse}}
|'he is said to be good'
|-
|Mediate
|{{Lang|chy|éhpehêvahêhoo'o}}
|'long ago he was good'
|}

====Conjunct order====
This order governs a variety of dependent clause types.{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=243}}  Leman (2011) characterizes this order of verbs as requiring other verbal elements in order to establish complete meaning.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=19}} Verbs in the conjunct order are marked with a mode-specific prefix and a suffix marking person, number and animacy.{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=244}}

{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 140px;" | Mode
! style="width: 150px;" | Example
! style="width: 130px;" | Translation
|-
|-
|Indicative
|{{Lang|chy|tséhpėhêvaese}}
|'when he was good'
|-
|Subjunctive
|{{Lang|chy|mȧhpėhévaestse}}
|'when he is good' (unrealized)
|-
|Iterative
|{{Lang|chy|ho'pėhévȧhesėstse}}
|'whenever he is good'
|-
|Subjunctive Iterative
|{{Lang|chy|ohpėhévȧhesėstse}}
|'when he is generally good'
|-
|Participle
|{{Lang|chy|tséhpėhêvaestse}}
|'the one who is good'
|-
|Interrogative
|{{Lang|chy|éópėhêvaestse}}
|'whether he is good'
|-
|Obligative
|{{Lang|chy|ahpėhêvȧhesėstse}}
|'he ought to be good'
|-
|Optative
|{{Lang|chy|momóxepėhévaestse}}
|'I wish he would be good'
|-
|Negative inferential
|{{Lang|chy|móho'nópėhévaestse}}
|'he must not be good'
|}

====Imperative order====
The third order governs commands.  Cheyenne, in common with several other North American languages,{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=172}} distinguishes two types of [[imperative mood]], one indicating immediate action, and the other indicating delayed action.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=18}}{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=242}}

{| class="wikitable"
! style="width: 140px;" | Mode
! style="width: 150px;" | Example
! style="width: 130px;" | Translation
|-
|-
|Immediate
|{{Lang|chy|méseestse}}
|'eat!'
|-
|Delayed
|{{Lang|chy|méseheo'o}}
|'eat later!'
|-
|Hortative
|{{Lang|chy|mésėheha}}
|'let him eat!'
|}

===Verb morphology===
The Cheyenne verb system is very complex and verb constructions are central to the morphosyntax of the language,{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=17}}{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=451}} to the point that even adjectives{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=457}} and even some nouns{{sfn|Petter|1915|p=iv}} are largely substantive{{clarify|date=December 2023|reason=Substantive in Latin grammar is a synonym of noun in English grammar. What does it mean in Cheyenne grammar?}} in nature.  Verbs change according to a number of factors, such as [[Modal verb|modality]], [[Grammatical person|person]] and [[Transitivity (grammar)|transitivity]], as well as the [[animacy]] of the referent, each of these categories being indicated by the addition of an [[affix]] to the basic verb stem.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=22}} There are also several [[Instrumental case|instrumental]], [[Locative case|locative]] and [[adverb]]ial affixes that add further information to the larger verb construction.  This can result in very long, complex verbs that are able to stand alone as entire sentences in their own right.
All Cheyenne verbs have a rigid templatic structure.{{sfn|Murray|2012|p=244}} The affixes are placed according to the following paradigm:

<div style="text-align: center;">person – (tense) – (directional) – (preverb) – ROOT – (medial) – final{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=22}}</div>

====Pronominal affixes====
Cheyenne represents the participants of an expression not as separate [[pronoun]] words but as affixes on the [[verb]]. There are three basic pronominal prefixes in Cheyenne:{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=20}}
*{{Lang|chy|ná-}}{{in5|6}}first person
*{{Lang|chy|né-}}{{in5|6}}second person
*{{Lang|chy|é-}}{{in5|8}}third person

These three basic prefixes can be combined with various suffixes to express all of Cheyenne's pronominal distinctions. For example, the prefix {{Lang|chy|ná-}} can be combined on a verb with the suffix -me to express the first person plural exclusive.

====Tense====
Tense in Cheyenne is expressed by the addition of a specific tense morpheme between the pronominal prefix and the verb stem.  Verbs do not always contain tense information, and an unmarked present tense verb can be used to express both past and "recent" present tense in conversation.  Thus, {{Lang|chy|návóómo}} could mean both 'I see him' and 'I saw him' depending on the context.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=191}}

Far past tense is expressed by the morpheme {{IPA|/-h-/}}, which changes to {{IPA|/-x-/}}, {{IPA|/-s-/}}, {{IPA|/-š-/}} or {{IPA|/-'-/}} before the -h, -t, -k and a vowel, respectively.  Thus:

*{{Lang|chy|návóómo}} {{gloss|I see him}}
*{{Lang|chy|náhvóómo}} {{gloss|I saw him}}

Similarly, the future tense is expressed by the morpheme {{IPA|/-hte/}}, which changes to {{Lang|chy|-htse}} after the {{Lang|chy|ná-}} pronominal, {{Lang|chy|-stse}} after {{Lang|chy|ne-}} and {{Lang|chy|-tse}} in the third-person, with the third-person prefix dropped altogether.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=191}}

====Directional affixes====
These prefixes address whether the action of the verb is moving "toward" or "away from" some entity, usually the speaker.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=23}}

*{{Lang|chy|-nėh-}}{{in5|8}}toward
*{{Lang|chy|-nex-}}{{in5|8}}toward (before -h)
*{{Lang|chy|-ne'-}}{{in5|9}}toward (before a vowel)
*{{Lang|chy|-nes-}}{{in5|8}}toward (before -t)
*{{Lang|chy|-ta-}}{{in5|11}}away from

====Preverbs====
Following Algonquianist terminology, Leman (2011) describes "preverbs", morphemes which add adjectival or adverbial information to the verb stem.  Multiple preverbs can be combined within one verb complex. The following list represents only a small sample.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=181}}

*{{Lang|chy|-emóose-}}{{in5|10}}secretly
*{{Lang|chy|-nésta-}}{{in5|14}}previously 
*{{Lang|chy|-sé'hove-}}{{in5|10}}suddenly
*{{Lang|chy|-áhane-}}{{in5|12}}extremely
*{{Lang|chy|-táve-}}{{in5|15}}slightly
*{{Lang|chy|-ohke-}}{{in5|15}}regularly
*{{Lang|chy|-pȧháve-}}{{in5|11}}good, well
*{{Lang|chy|-ma'xe-}}{{in5|13}}much, a lot
*{{Lang|chy|-hé-}}{{in5|19}}for the purpose of
*{{Lang|chy|-ha'ke-}}{{in5|14}}slowly, softly
*{{Lang|chy|-hoove-}}{{in5|13}}mistakenly

====Medial affixes====
This large group of suffixes provide information about something associated with the root, usually communicating that the action is done with or to a body part.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=23}} Thus: {{Lang|chy|énėše'xahtse}} ('he-wash-mouth') = 'he gargled'.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=165}} Following is a sample of medial suffixes:{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=163}}

*{{Lang|chy|-ahtse}}{{in5|14}}mouth
*{{Lang|chy|-éné}}{{in5|17}}face
*{{Lang|chy|-na'evá}}{{in5|12}}arm
*{{Lang|chy|-vétová}}{{in5|12}}body 
*{{Lang|chy|-he'oná}}{{in5|12}}hand
*{{Lang|chy|-hahtá}}{{in5|14}}foot

Medial suffixes can also be used with nouns to create compound words or to coin entirely new words from existing morphemes, as in:

{{Lang|chy|ka'énė-hôtame}} [short-face-dog] = 'bulldog'{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=165}}

====Final affixes====
Cheyenne verbs take different object agreement endings depending upon the animacy of the subject and the transitivity of the verb itself.  Intransitive verbs take endings depending upon the animacy of their subject, whereas transitive verbs take endings that depend upon the animacy of their object.  All verbs can therefore be broadly categorized into one of four classes: Animate Intransitive (AI), Inanimate Instransitive (II), Transitive Animate (TA) and Transitive Inanimate (TI).{{sfn|Leman|2011|pp=17-18}} Following are the most common object agreement markers for each verb class.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=23}}

*{{Lang|chy|-e}}{{in5|16}}Animate Intransitive (AI)
*{{Lang|chy|-ó}}{{in5|16}}Inanimate Intransitive (II)
*{{Lang|chy|-o}}{{in5|16}}Transitive Animate (TA)
*{{Lang|chy|-á/-é}}{{in5|12}}Transitive Inanimate  (TI)

====Negation====
Verbs are negated by the addition of the infix {{Lang|chy|-sâa-}} immediately after the pronominal affix.  This morpheme changes to {{Lang|chy|sáa-}} in the absence of a pronominal affix, as occurs in the imperative and in some future tense constructions.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=25}}

===Nouns===
Nouns are classified according to animacy.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=5}} They change according to [[grammatical number]] (singular and plural) but are not distinguished according to [[Grammatical gender|gender]]{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=456}} or [[definiteness]].{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=459}}

====Obviation====
When two third persons are referred to by the same verb, the object of the sentence becomes obviated, what Algonquianists refer to as a "fourth person."{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=21}} It is essentially an "out of focus" third person.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=11}} As with possessive obviation above, the presence of a fourth person triggers morphological changes in both the verb and noun.  If the obviated entity is an animate noun, it will be marked with an obviative suffix, typically {{Lang|chy|-o}} or {{Lang|chy|-óho}}.  For example:

*{{Lang|chy|návóómo hetane}}&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  'I saw a man'
*{{Lang|chy|he'e évôomóho hetanóho}}&nbsp; 'The woman saw a man'

Verbs register the presence of obviated participants whether or not they are present as nouns.  These forms could be likened to a kind of [[passive voice]], although Esteban (2012) argues that since Cheyenne is a "reference-dominated language where case marking and word order are governed by the necessity to code pragmatic roles," a passive-like construction is assumed.{{sfn|Corral Esteban|2012|p=93}} This phenomenon is an example of typical Algonquian "person hierarchy," in which animacy and first personhood take precedence over other forms.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=22}}

====Number====
Both animate and inanimate nouns are pluralized by the addition of suffixes.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=8}}{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=454}} These suffixes are irregular and can change slightly according to a complex system of phonological rules.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=214}}

*{{Lang|chy|-(h)o}}, {{Lang|chy|-(n)é}}{{in5|6}}Inanimate plural
*{{Lang|chy|-(n)ȯtse}}{{in5|11}}Animate plural

====Possession====
Possession is denoted by a special set of pronominal suffixes.  Following is a list of the most common possession prefixes, although rarely some words take different prefixes.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=11}}{{sfn|Petter|1905|p=455}}
*{{Lang|chy|na-}}{{in5|6}}first person
*{{Lang|chy|ne-}}{{in5|6}}second person
*{{Lang|chy|he-}}{{in5|8}}third person

Generally, possessive prefixes take a low pitch on the following vowel.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=20}}

When a third person animate noun is possessed by another third person, the noun becomes [[Obviative|obviated]] and takes a different form.  Much of the time, this obviated form is identical to the noun's regular plural form,{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=11}} with only a few exceptions.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=171}} This introduces ambiguity in that it is not always possible to tell whether an obviated noun is singular or plural.{{sfn|Leman|2011|p=11}}