Editing City (section)

== Infrastructure ==
[[File:Traffic_congestion_Jl_Asia_Afrika_Bandung.jpg|thumb|Traffic congestion in [[Bandung]] in Indonesia]]
Urban [[infrastructure]] involves various physical networks and spaces necessary for transportation, water use, energy, recreation, and public functions.<ref name=Tarr>[[Joel A. Tarr]], "The Evolution of the Urban Infrastructure in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries"; in Hanson (1984).</ref> Infrastructure carries a high initial cost in [[fixed capital]] but lower [[marginal cost]]s and thus positive [[economies of scale]].<ref name=WellmanSpiller2012>Wellman & Spiller, "Introduction", in Wellman & Spiller (2012).</ref> Because of the higher [[barriers to entry]], these networks have been classified as [[natural monopoly|natural monopolies]], meaning that economic logic favors control of each network by a single organization, public or private.<ref name=Bakker2003 /><ref name=WellmanPretorius2012 />

Infrastructure in general plays a vital role in a city's capacity for economic activity and expansion, underpinning the very survival of the city's inhabitants, as well as technological, commercial, industrial, and social activities.<ref name=Tarr /><ref name=WellmanSpiller2012 /> Structurally, many infrastructure systems take the form of [[network theory|networks]] with redundant links and multiple pathways, so that the system as a whole continues to operate even if parts of it fail.<ref name=WellmanPretorius2012>Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, "Urban Infrastructure: Productivity, Project Evaluation, and Finance"; in Wellman & Spiller (2012).</ref> The particulars of a city's infrastructure systems have historical [[path dependence]] because new development must build from what exists already.<ref name=WellmanSpiller2012 />

[[Megaproject]]s such as the construction of [[airport]]s, [[power plant]]s, and [[railway]]s require large upfront investments and thus tend to require funding from the national government or the private sector.{{sfn | Latham | McCormack | McNamara | McNeill | 2009 | p=70}}<ref name=WellmanPretorius2012 /> Privatization may also extend to all levels of infrastructure construction and maintenance.<ref>Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, "Urban Infrastructure: Productivity, Project Evaluation, and Finance"; in Wellman & Spiller (2012), pp. 73–74. "The NCP established a legislative regime at Federal and State levels to facilitate third-party access to provision and operation of infrastructure facilities, including electricity and telecommunications networks, gas and water pipelines, railroad terminals and networks, airports, and ports. Following these reforms, few countries embarked on a larger scale initiative than Australia to privatize delivery and management of public infrastructure at all levels of government."</ref>

Urban infrastructure ideally serves all residents equally but in practice may prove uneven—with, in some cities, clear first-class and second-class alternatives.<ref name=Lineberry /><ref>{{harvnb| Latham | McCormack | McNamara | McNeill | 2009 | p=75}}: "By the 1960s, however, this 'integrated ideal' was being challenged, public infrastructure entering into crisis. There is now a new orthodoxy in many branches of urban planning: 'The logic is now for planners to fight for the best possible networked infrastructures for their specialized district, in partnership with (often privatised and internationalised network) operators, rather than seeking to orchestrate how networks roll out through the city as a whole" (Graham and Marvin, 2001: 113).<br>In the context of development theory, these 'secessionary' infrastructures physically by-pass sectors of cities unable to afford the necessary cabling, pipe-laying, or streetscaping that underpins service provision. Cities such as Manila, Lagos or Mumbai are thus increasingly characterized by a two-speed mode of urbanization.</ref><ref name=Bakker2003 />

=== Utilities ===
[[File:AcueductoSegovia04.JPG|thumb|[[Aqueduct of Segovia]] in Segovia, Spain]]
[[Public utility|Public utilities]] (literally, useful things with general availability) include basic and essential infrastructure networks, chiefly concerned with the supply of water, electricity, and telecommunications capability to the populace.<ref>"public, adj. and n.", ''Oxford English Dictionary'', September 2007.</ref>

[[Sanitation]], necessary for good health in crowded conditions, requires water supply and [[waste management]] as well as individual [[hygiene]]. Urban [[water]] systems include principally a [[water supply network]] and a network ([[Sewerage|sewerage system]]) for [[sewage]] and [[stormwater]]. [[History of water supply and sanitation|Historically]], either local governments or private companies have administered urban [[water supply]], with a tendency toward government water supply in the 20th century and a tendency toward private operation at the turn of the twenty-first.<ref name=Bakker2003 />{{efn|Water resources in rapidly urbanizing areas are not merely ''privatized'' as they are in western countries; since the systems do not exist to begin with, private contracts also entail water [[Water industry|industrialization]] and [[wikt:enclosure|enclosure]].<ref name=Bakker2003 /> Also, there is a countervailing trend: 100 cities have ''re''-municipalized their water supply since the 1990s.<ref>Emanuele Lobina, David Hall, & Vladimir Popov, "List of water remunicipalisations in Asia and worldwide – As of April 2014"; [[Public Services International Research Unit]], University of Greenwich.</ref>}} The market for private water services is dominated by two French companies, [[Veolia Water]] (formerly [[Vivendi]]) and [[Engie]] (formerly [[Suez (company, 1997–2008)|Suez]]), said to hold 70% of all water contracts worldwide.<ref name=Bakker2003>{{cite journal |authorlink=Karen Bakker |first=Karen |last=Bakker |title=Archipelagos and networks: urbanization and water privatization in the South |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=169 |issue=4 |date=December 2003 |pages=328–341 |doi=10.1111/j.0016-7398.2003.00097.x |bibcode=2003GeogJ.169..328B |quote=The diversity of water supply management systems worldwide—which operate along a continuum between fully public and fully private—bear witness to repeated shifts back and forth between private and public ownership and management of water systems.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goldman |first=Michael |date=September 2007 |title=How "Water for All!" policy became hegemonic: The power of the World Bank and its transnational policy networks |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222173476 |url-status=live |journal=Geoforum|volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=786–800 |doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2005.10.008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918020813/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Goldman8/publication/222173476_How_Water_for_All_policy_became_hegemonic_The_power_of_the_World_Bank_and_its_transnational_policy_networks/links/569d1e4408ae03384dd049c5/How-Water-for-All-policy-became-hegemonic-The-power-of-the-World-Bank-and-its-transnational-policy-networks.pdf |archive-date=2017-09-18}}</ref>

Modern urban life relies heavily on the [[energy]] transmitted through [[electricity]] for the operation of [[electric machines]] (from household [[Home appliance|appliances]] to [[outline of industrial machinery|industrial machines]] to now-ubiquitous [[electronics|electronic]] systems used in communications, business, and government) and for [[traffic light]]s, [[street light]]s, and indoor [[lighting]]. Cities rely to a lesser extent on [[hydrocarbon fuel]]s such as [[gasoline]] and [[natural gas]] for transportation, [[heating]], and [[cooking]]. [[Telecommunications]] infrastructure such as [[telephone line]]s and [[coaxial cable]]s also traverse cities, forming dense networks for [[mass communication|mass]] and [[point-to-point (telecommunications)|point-to-point]] communications.{{sfn | Latham | McCormack | McNamara | McNeill | 2009 | pp=169–170}}

=== Transportation ===
{{See also|Public transport}}
[[File:Gautrain..., O R Tambo Intl Airport South Africa.jpg|thumb|[[Gautrain]] at [[O. R. Tambo International Airport]] in Johannesburg]]
[[File:Harmoni Central Busway Transjakarta 4.JPG|thumb|[[TransJakarta]] in Indonesia is the longest [[bus rapid transit]] system in the world.]]
[[File:Kevyen liikenteen väylä Baana - G8541 - hkm.HKMS000005-km0000n5jx.jpg|thumb|[[Baana]], a [[Shared-use path|shared-path]] [[rail trail]] in [[Helsinki]]]]
Because cities rely on specialization and an [[economic system]] based on [[wage labour|wage labor]], their inhabitants must have the ability to regularly travel between home, work, commerce, and entertainment.<ref>Grava (2003), pp. 1–2.</ref> City dwellers travel by foot or by wheel on [[road]]s and [[walkway]]s, or use special [[rapid transit]] systems based on [[tunnel|underground]], [[light rail|overground]], and [[Elevated railway|elevated]] rail. Cities also rely on long-distance transportation (truck, [[rail transport|rail]], and [[airplane]]) for economic connections with other cities and rural areas.<ref name=Hart2001>Tom Hart, "Transport and the City"; in Paddison (2001).</ref>

City streets historically were the domain of [[horse]]s and their riders and [[pedestrian]]s, who only sometimes had [[sidewalk]]s and [[transit mall|special walking areas]] reserved for them.<ref>Grava (2003), pp. 15–18.</ref> In the West, [[bicycle]]s or ([[velocipede]]s), efficient human-powered machines for short- and medium-distance travel,<ref>Grava (2003),</ref> enjoyed a period of popularity at the beginning of the twentieth century before the rise of automobiles.<ref>Smethurst pp. 67–71.</ref> Soon after, they gained a more lasting foothold in Asian and African cities under European influence.<ref>Smethurst pp. 105–171.</ref> In Western cities, industrializing, [[electrification|electrifying]], and expanding [[public transit]] systems, especially [[streetcar]]s, enabled urban expansion as new residential neighborhoods sprang up along transit lines and workers rode to and from work downtown.<ref name=Hart2001 /><ref name="WhittYago1985">{{Cite journal |last1=Whitt |first1=J. Allen |last2=Yago |first2=Glenn |date=September 1985 |title=Corporate Strategies and the Decline of Transit in U.S. Cities |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/004208168502100106 |journal=Urban Affairs Quarterly|volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=37–65 |doi=10.1177/004208168502100106 |s2cid=153704300 |issn=0042-0816|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Since the mid-20th century, cities have relied heavily on [[motor vehicle]] transportation, with major [[effects of the car on societies|implications]] for their layout, environment, and aesthetics.<ref name=Borden>Iain Borden, "Automobile Interstices: Driving and the In-Between Spaces of the City"; in Brighenti (2013).</ref> (This transformation occurred most dramatically in the US—where corporate and governmental policies favored automobile transport systems—and to a lesser extent in Europe.)<ref name=Hart2001 /><ref name=WhittYago1985 /> The rise of personal [[car]]s accompanied the expansion of urban economic areas into much larger [[metropolis]]es, subsequently creating ubiquitous [[traffic]] issues with the accompanying construction of new [[highway]]s, wider streets, and alternative [[walkway]]s for pedestrians.<ref>Moshe Safdie with Wendy Kohn, ''The City After the Automobile''; BasicBooks (HarperCollins), 1997; {{ISBN|0-465-09836-3}}; pp. 3–6.</ref><ref>Grava (2003), pp. 128–132, 152–157.</ref>{{sfn | Latham | McCormack | McNamara | McNeill | 2009 | p=30–32}}<ref name="Wachsmuth2014">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275321247|doi=10.1068/d21911|title=City as Ideology: Reconciling the Explosion of the City Form with the Tenacity of the City Concept|journal=Environment and Planning D: Society and Space|volume=32|pages=75–90|year=2014|last1=Wachsmuth|first1=David|issue=1 |bibcode=2014EnPlD..32...75W |s2cid=144077154|access-date=30 June 2017|archive-date=24 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024192135/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275321247|url-status=live}}</ref> However, severe traffic jams still occur regularly in cities around the world, as private car ownership and urbanization continue to increase, overwhelming existing urban [[street network]]s.<ref name="Gwilliam2013">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/326229357/Cities-on-the-Move-Ten-Years-After|doi=10.1016/j.retrec.2012.06.032|title=Cities on the Move Ten Years After &#124; Biofuel &#124; Economic Growth|journal=Research in Transportation Economics|volume=40|pages=3–18|year=2013|last1=Gwilliam|first1=Kenneth|access-date=30 June 2017|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728140827/https://www.scribd.com/document/326229357/Cities-on-the-Move-Ten-Years-After|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

The urban [[Public transport bus service|bus system]], the world's most common form of public transport, uses a network of scheduled [[bus route|routes]] to move people through the city, alongside cars, on the roads.<ref>Grava (2003), 301–305. "There are a great many places where [buses] are the only public service mode offered; to the best of the author's knowledge, no city that has transit operates without a bus component. Leaving aside private cars, all indicators—passengers carried, vehicle kilometers accumulated, size of fleet, accidents recorded, pollution caused, workers employed, or whatever else—show the dominance of buses among all transit modes, in this country as well as anywhere else around the world. [...] At the global scale, there are probably 8000 to 10,000 communities and cities that provide organized bus transit. The larger places have other modes as well, but the bulk of these cities offers buses as their sole public means of mobility."</ref> The economic function itself also became more decentralized as concentration became impractical and employers relocated to more car-friendly locations (including [[edge city|edge cities]]).<ref name=Hart2001 /> Some cities have introduced [[bus rapid transit]] systems which include exclusive [[bus lanes]] and other methods for prioritizing bus traffic over private cars.<ref name="Gwilliam2013" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Levinson |first1=Herbert |last2=Zimmerman |first2=Samuel |last3=Clinger |first3=Jennifer |last4=Rutherford |first4=G. |year=2002 |title=Bus Rapid Transit: An Overview |url=http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jpt/vol5/iss2/1/ |journal=Journal of Public Transportation |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.5038/2375-0901.5.2.1 |s2cid=17621150 |issn=1077-291X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Many big American cities still operate conventional public transit by rail, as exemplified by the ever-popular [[New York City Subway]] system. Rapid transit is widely used in Europe and has increased in Latin America and Asia.<ref name="Gwilliam2013" />

[[Walking]] and [[cycling]] ("non-motorized transport") enjoy increasing favor (more [[pedestrian zone]]s and [[bike lane]]s) in American and Asian urban transportation planning, under the influence of such trends as the [[healthy city|Healthy Cities]] movement, the drive for [[sustainable development]], and the idea of a [[carfree city]].<ref name="Gwilliam2013" /><ref>{{Cite journal |pmc = 3428861|year = 2012|last1 = Rydin|first1 = Y.|title = Shaping cities for health: Complexity and the planning of urban environments in the 21st century|journal = Lancet|volume = 379|issue = 9831|pages = 2079–2108|last2 = Bleahu|first2 = A.|last3 = Davies|first3 = M.|last4 = Dávila|first4 = J.D.|last5 = Friel|first5 = S.|last6 = De Grandis|first6 = G.|last7 = Groce|first7 = N.|last8 = Hallal|first8 = P.C.|last9 = Hamilton|first9 = I.|last10 = Howden-Chapman|first10 = P.|last11 = Lai|first11 = K.M.|last12 = Lim|first12 = C.J.|last13 = Martins|first13 = J.|last14 = Osrin|first14 = D.|last15 = Ridley|first15 = I.|last16 = Scott|first16 = I.|last17 = Taylor|first17 = M.|last18 = Wilkinson|first18 = P.|last19 = Wilson|first19 = J.|pmid = 22651973|doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60435-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/17076734|doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.09.036|title=Greenways: Multiplying and diversifying in the 21st century|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|volume=76|issue=1–4|pages=252–290|last1=Walmsley|first1=Anthony|year=2006|bibcode=2006LUrbP..76..252W |access-date=20 December 2017|archive-date=10 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210035741/https://www.academia.edu/17076734|url-status=live}}</ref> Techniques such as [[road space rationing]] and [[road pricing|road use charges]] have been introduced to limit urban car traffic.<ref name="Gwilliam2013" />