Editing Draft evasion (section)

===United States===
The United States has [[Conscription in the United States|employed a draft]] several times, usually during war but also during the [[Cold War]]. Each time the draft has been met with at least some resistance.

In ''Sketches of America'' (1818) British author Henry Bradshaw Fearon, who visited the young United States on a fact-finding mission to inform Britons considering emigration, described the [[New York Guard]]—although he did not name it—as he found it in New York City in August 1817:

<blockquote>Every male inhabitant can be called out, from the age of 18 to 45, on actual military duty. During a state of peace, there are seven musters annually: the fine for non-attendance is, each time, five dollars. Commanding officers have discretionary power to receive substitutes. An instance of their easiness to be pleased was related to me by Mr. —, a tradesman of this city. He never attends the muster, but, to avoid the fine, sends some of his men, who answer to his name; the same man is not invariably his deputy on parade: in this, Mr. — suits his own convenience; sometimes the collecting clerk, sometimes one of the brewers, at others a drayman: and to finish this military pantomime, a firelock is often dispensed with, for the more convenient wartime weapon—a cudgel. Courts-martial have the power of mitigating the fine, on the assignment of a satisfactory cause of absence, and in cases of poverty. Upon legal exemptions I cannot convey certain information. During a period of three months in the late war, martial law existed, and no substitutes were received. Aliens were not called out.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fearon|first=Henry Bradshaw|title=Sketches of America: A Narrative of a Journey of Five Thousand Miles Through the Eastern and Western States of America|publisher=Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown|year=1818|location=London|pages=48–49}}</ref></blockquote>

====Civil War====
{{See also|Confederate Conscription Acts 1862–1864}}
[[File:Resistance to Confederate conscription.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|Parody of Confederate troops forcing a pro-Union Southerner (left foreground) and other reluctant Southerners to comply with the Confederate draft, c. 1862.<ref>{{cite web |work=Prints & Photographs Online Catalog |url=https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661642 |title=Southern 'Volunteers' |year=1862 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |access-date=July 8, 2018}}</ref>]]

Both the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] (the North) and the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] (the South) instituted drafts during the [[American Civil War]] – and both drafts were often evaded.<ref name=Bell /> In the North, evaders were most numerous among poor Irish immigrants. In the South, evaders were most numerous in hill country and in certain other parts of Texas, Louisiana, and Georgia.<ref name=Bell />

Resistance to the draft was sometimes violent. In the North, nearly 100 draft enrollment officers were injured in attacks.<ref name=Bell /> [[New York City draft riots|Anti-draft riots in New York City in 1863]] lasted several days and resulted in up to 120 deaths and 2,000 injuries.<ref name=Bell />

According to historian David Williams, by 1864 the Southern draft had become virtually unenforceable.<ref>Williams, David (2008). ''Bitterly Divided: The South's Inner Civil War''. New York: The New Press, p.&nbsp;2. {{ISBN|978-1-59558-108-2}}.</ref> Some believe that draft evasion in the South, where manpower was scarcer than in the North, contributed to the Confederate defeat.<ref name=Bell />

====World War I====
The [[Selective Service Act of 1917]] was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples and by prohibiting all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. In 1917 and 1918 some 24 million men were registered and nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the overt resistance that characterized the Civil War.<ref>Chambers, John Whiteclay II (1987). ''To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America.'' New York: Free Press. {{ISBN|978-0-02-905820-6}}.</ref>

[[File:Eugene Debs portrait.jpeg|left|thumb|280x280px|[[Eugene V. Debs]] spoke out against the draft during World War I.<ref name=Virden />]]

In the United States during [[World War I]], the word "[[slacker]]" was commonly used to describe someone who was not participating in the war effort, especially someone who avoided military service, an equivalent of the later term "draft dodger." Attempts to track down such evaders were called "slacker raids."<ref>Author unspecified (10 September 1918). "[https://www.nytimes.com/1918/09/10/archives/take-slackers-into-army-many-at-camp-dix-welcome-induction-into.html Take Slackers Into Army; Many at Camp Dix Welcome Induction Into Military Service]". ''The New York Times'', p.&nbsp;6. Retrieved 17 January 2018.</ref><ref>Capozzola, Christopher (2008). ''Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen''. New York: Oxford University Press, pp.&nbsp;43–53. {{ISBN|978-0-19-533549-1}}.</ref> Under the [[Espionage Act of 1917]], activists including [[Eugene V. Debs]] and [[Emma Goldman]] were arrested for speaking out against the draft.<ref name=Virden>Virden, Jenel (2008). ''America and the Wars of the Twentieth Century''. [[Palgrave Macmillan]], p.&nbsp;35. {{ISBN|978-0-333-72661-7}}.</ref>

Despite such circumstances, draft evasion was substantial. According to one scholar, nearly 11 percent of the draft-eligible population refused to register, or to report for induction;<ref name=Keene>Keene, Jennifer D. (2006). ''World War I''. [[Greenwood Publishing Group]], p.&nbsp;37. {{ISBN|978-0-313-33181-7}}/</ref> according to another, 12 percent of draftees either failed to report to their training camps or deserted from them.<ref name=Wittmann /> A significant amount of draft evasion took place in the South, in part because many impoverished Southerners lacked documentation<ref name=Keene /> and in part because many Southerners recalled the "horrible carnage" of the Civil War.<ref>Ross, William G. (2017). ''World War I and the American Constitution''. [[Cambridge University Press]], p.&nbsp;28. {{ISBN|978-1-107-09464-2}}.</ref> In 2017, historian [[Michael Kazin]] concluded that a greater percentage of American men evaded the draft during World War I than during the Vietnam War.<ref>[[Michael Kazin|Kazin, Michael]] (2017). ''War Against War: The American Fight for Peace, 1914–1918''. [[Simon & Schuster]], p.&nbsp;209. {{ISBN|978-1-4767-0590-3}}.</ref>

====World War II====
{{Main|Selective Training and Service Act of 1940}}

According to scholar Anna Wittmann, about 72,000 young Americans applied for [[conscientious objector]] (CO) status during [[World War II]], and many of their applications were rejected.<ref name=Anna>Wittmann (2016), cited above, p.&nbsp;116.</ref> Some COs chose to serve as noncombatants in the military, others chose jail, and a third group – taking a position in between – chose to enter a specially organized domestic [[Civilian Public Service]].<ref name=Anna /><ref>Frazer, Heather T.; O'Sullivan, John (1996). ''We Have Just Begun to Not Fight: An Oral History of Conscientious Objectors in the Civilian Public Service During World War II''.  New York: Twayne Publishers. {{ISBN|978-0-8057-9134-1}}.</ref>

====Korean War====
The [[Korean War]], which lasted from 1950 to 1953, generated 80,000 cases of alleged draft evasion.<ref name=Anna />

====Vietnam War====
{{Main|Draft evasion in the Vietnam War}}
[[File:DraftcardRenJuan.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A [[Vietnam War]]-era draft card. Retention of the card was legally required.<ref>Rothenberg, Leslie S. (1968). ''The Draft and You: A Handbook on the Selective Service System''. New York: Anchor Books / Doubleday, p.&nbsp;221. No ISBN.</ref>]]
[[File:Draft card burning NYC 1967 Gary Rader Green Beret 100px.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Draft card burning in New York City, 1967]]
The [[Vietnam War]] (1955–1975) was controversial in the US<ref>[[David Maraniss|Maraniss, David]] (2003).  ''[[They Marched Into Sunlight: War and Peace, Vietnam and America, October 1967]]''. New York: Simon & Schuster. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-6104-3}}/</ref> and was accompanied by a significant amount of draft evasion among young Americans, with many managing to remain in the U.S. by various means and some eventually leaving for Canada or elsewhere.

Significant draft avoidance was taking place even before the US became heavily involved in the Vietnam War. The large cohort of [[Baby boomers|Baby Boomers]] allowed for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college and graduate students.<ref name=Cortright /> According to [[Peace and conflict studies|peace studies]] scholar [[David Cortright]], ''more than half'' of the 27 million men eligible for the draft during the Vietnam War were deferred, exempted, or disqualified.<ref name=Cortright />

The number of draft resisters was also significant. According to Cortright, "Distinct from the millions who [avoided] the draft were the many thousands who resisted the conscription system and actively opposed the war".<ref>Cortright (2005), cited above, p. 164.</ref> The head of US President [[Richard Nixon]]'s task force on the [[Volunteer military|all-volunteer military]] reported in 1970 that the number of resisters was "expanding at an alarming rate" and that the government was "almost powerless to apprehend and prosecute them".<ref>Cortright (2005), cited above, p. 165 (quoting task force chair [[Martin Anderson (economist)|Martin Anderson]]).</ref> It is now known that, during the Vietnam era, approximately 570,000 young men were classified as draft offenders,<ref name=Cortright /> and approximately 210,000 were formally accused of draft violations;<ref name=Accused /><ref name=Cortright /> however, only 8,750 were convicted and only 3,250 were jailed.<ref name=Cortright /> Some draft eligible men publicly [[Draft-card burning|burned their draft cards]], but the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] brought charges against only 50, of whom 40 were convicted.<ref name=chance>Baskir and Strauss (1987), cited above.</ref>

As US troop strength in Vietnam increased, some young men sought to evade the draft by pro-actively enlisting in military forces that were unlikely to see combat in Vietnam. For example, conscription scholars Lawrence Baskir and William Strauss say that the [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] may have served that purpose for some,<ref name=Coast>Baskir and Strauss, cited above, p.&nbsp;54.</ref> though they also point out that Coast Guardsmen had to maintain readiness for combat in Vietnam,<ref>Baskir and Strauss, cited above, p.&nbsp;14.</ref> and that some Coast Guardsmen eventually served and were killed there.<ref name=Coast /> Similarly, the Vietnam-era [[National Guard (United States)|National Guard]] was seen by some as an avenue for avoiding combat in Vietnam,<ref name=circumstance>Baskir and Strauss, cited above, p.&nbsp;51</ref> although that too was less than foolproof: about 15,000 National Guardsmen were sent to Vietnam before the war began winding down.<ref name=circumstance />

[[File:20111015 174748 phil-ochs (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|[[Phil Ochs]] (1940–1976) was one of several [[Counterculture|countercultural]] figures to encourage draft evasion.]]

Other young men sought to evade the draft by avoiding or resisting any military commitment. In this they were bolstered by certain [[Counterculture of the 1960s|countercultural]] figures. "[[Draft Dodger Rag]]", a 1965 song by [[Phil Ochs]], employed satire to provide a how-to list of available [[Selective Service System#Classifications|deferments]]: [[Splenic injury|ruptured spleen]], poor [[visual acuity|eyesight]], [[flat feet]], [[asthma]], and many more.<ref>Ochs, Phil (1965).  "[https://genius.com/Phil-ochs-draft-dodger-rag-lyrics Draft Dodger Rag]". Lyrics.  [[Genius (website)|Genius]] website. Retrieved 12 October 2018.</ref> Folksinger [[Arlo Guthrie]] lampooned the paradox of seeking a deferment by acting crazy in his song "[[Alice's Restaurant]]": "I said, 'I wanna kill! Kill! Eat dead burnt bodies!' and the Sergeant said, 'You're our boy'!"<ref>[[Arlo Guthrie|Guthrie, Arlo]] (1967). "[https://genius.com/Arlo-guthrie-alices-restaurant-massacree-lyrics Alice's Restaurant Massacre]". Lyrics. [[Genius (website)|Genius]] website.  Retrieved 17 January 2018.</ref> The book ''[[1001 Ways to Beat the Draft]]'' was co-authored by [[Tuli Kupferberg]], a member of the band [[The Fugs]]. It espoused such methods as arriving at the draft board in diapers.<ref name=Tuli>[[Tuli Kupferberg|Kupferberg, Tuli]]; Bashlow, Robert (1968). ''1001 Ways to Beat the Draft''. New York: Oliver Layton Press.  Originally New York: Grove Press, 1967. The book focuses on the United States in the 1960s. Neither edition has an ISBN.</ref> Another text pertinent to draft-age men was [[Jules Feiffer]]'s cartoon novella from the 1950s, ''Munro'', [[Munro (film)|later a short film]], in which a four-year-old boy is drafted by mistake.<ref>Feiffer, Jules (1989). ''The Collected Works, Volume II: Munro''.  Seattle: [[Fantagraphics Books]].  {{ISBN|978-1-56097-001-9}}.</ref>

Draft counseling groups were another source of support for potential draft evaders. Many such groups were active during the war. Some were connected to national groups, such as the [[American Friends Service Committee]] and [[Students for a Democratic Society]]; others were ad hoc campus or community groups.<ref name=Satin>[[Mark Satin|Satin, Mark]] (2017, orig. 1968). ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada''.  Toronto: House of Anansi Press "A List" reprint ed., Chap. 24 (listing the names ad addresses of 100 U.S. anti-draft groups from 38 states as of January 1968). {{ISBN|978-1-4870-0289-3}}.</ref> Many specially trained individuals worked as counselors for such groups.<ref>Tatum, Arlo, ed. (October 1968, orig. 1952). ''Handbook for Conscientious Objectors''. Philadelphia: [[Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors]], 10th ed., p.&nbsp;6. Booklet of 100 pages, no ISBN.</ref>

[[File:David Harris at Presidio 1968.jpg|thumb|265x265px|[[David Harris (activist)|David Harris]] and "The Resistance" helped organize Stop the Draft Week in Oakland, California, October 1967.<ref>Gitlin (1993, orig. 1987), cited above, pp.&nbsp;247–252.</ref><ref name=Ashbolt />]]

Alongside the draft counseling groups, a substantial draft resistance movement emerged.<ref name=Michael>Foley (2003), cited above, Introduction and Chaps. 1–6.</ref>  Students for a Democratic Society sought to play a major role in it,<ref>[[Kirkpatrick Sale|Sale, Kirkpatrick]] (1973). ''SDS''. New York: Vintage Books / Random House, "Resistance 1965–1968" section, pp.&nbsp;311–316. {{ISBN|978-0-394-71965-8}}.</ref> as did the [[War Resisters League]],<ref name=Ashbolt /> the [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee]]'s "National Black Anti-War Anti-Draft Union"<ref>[[Clayborne Carson|Carson, Clayborne]] (1981). ''In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s''.  Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p.&nbsp;271. {{ISBN|978-0-674-44726-4}}.</ref> and other groups.<ref name=Ashbolt /> Many say that the draft resistance movement was spearheaded by an organization called The Resistance.<ref name=Michael /><ref name=Ferberlynd>[[Michael Ferber|Ferber, Michael]]; [[Staughton Lynd|Lynd, Staughton]] (1971). ''The Resistance''.  Boston: Beacon Press.  {{ISBN|978-0-8070-0542-2}}.</ref> It was founded by [[David Harris (protester)|David Harris]] and others in the San Francisco Bay Area in March 1967, and quickly spread nationally.<ref name=Ashbolt>Ashbolt, Anthony (2013).  ''A Cultural History of the Radical Sixties in the San Francisco Bay Area''. New York: Routledge, pp. 127–128. {{ISBN|978-1-84893-232-6}}.</ref> The insignia of the organization was the Greek letter [[omega]], Ω, the symbol for ohms—the unit of [[Electrical resistance and conductance|electrical resistance]]. Members of The Resistance publicly burned their draft cards or refused to register for the draft. Other members deposited their cards into boxes on selected dates and then mailed them to the government. They were then drafted, refused to be inducted, and fought their cases in the federal courts. These draft resisters hoped that their public civil disobedience would help to bring the war and the draft to an end. Many young men went to federal prison as part of this movement.<ref name=Michael /><ref name=Ferberlynd /> According to Cortright, the draft resistance movement was the leading edge of the [[Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|anti-war movement]] in 1967 and 1968.<ref name=Cortright />

After the war, some of the draft evaders who stayed in the U.S. wrote memoirs. These included [[David Harris (protester)|David Harris]]'s ''[[Dreams Die Hard]]'' (1982),<ref name=Klein>[[Joe Klein|Klein, Joe]] (13 June 1982). "[https://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/13/books/a-protege-s-story.html  A Protégé's Story]". ''[[The New York Times Book Review]]'', p.&nbsp;3. Retrieved 2 February 2018.</ref> David Miller's ''I Didn't Know God Made Honky Tonk Communists'' (2001),<ref name=Friedman>Friedman, Sari (1 February 2002).  "[http://berkeleydailyplanet.com/issue/2002-02-01/article/9905?headline=Stranger-than-fiction--Sari-Friedman  Stranger than Fiction]". ''[[Berkeley Daily Planet]]'', p.&nbsp;1.  Retrieved 2 February 2018.</ref> Jerry Elmer's ''Felon for Peace'' (2005),<ref name=Kehler>[[Randy Kehler|Kehler, Randy]] (September 2005). "Felon for Peace: The Memoir of a Vietnam-Era Draft Resister". ''Fellowship'', vol. 71, no. 9–10, p.&nbsp;27. A publication of the [[Fellowship of Reconciliation (United States)|Fellowship of Reconciliation]].</ref> and Bruce Dancis's ''Resister'' (2014).<ref name=Joseph>Joseph, Paul (April 2015). "Resister: A Story of Peace and Prison During the Vietnam War". ''[[Peace & Change]]'', vol. 40, issue no. 2, pp.&nbsp;272–276. A joint publication of the [[Peace History Society]] and the [[Peace and Justice Studies Association]].</ref><ref name=Polner>Polner, Murray (18 May 2014). "[http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/155688 Review of Bruce Dancis's 'Resister']". [[History News Network]], an electronic platform at [[George Washington University]].  Retrieved 2 February 2018.</ref> Harris was an anti-draft organizer who went to jail for his beliefs (and was briefly married to folk singer [[Joan Baez]]),<ref name=Klein /> Miller was the first Vietnam War refuser to publicly burn his draft card (and later became partner to spiritual teacher [[Starhawk]]),<ref name=Friedman /> Elmer refused to register for the draft and destroyed draft board files in several locations,<ref name=Kehler /> and Dancis led the largest chapter of [[Students for a Democratic Society]] (the one at [[Cornell University]]) before being jailed for publicly shredding his draft card and returning it to his draft board.<ref name=Polner /> Harris in particular expresses serious second thoughts about aspects of the movement he was part of.<ref name=Klein />

Canadian historian Jessica Squires emphasizes that the number of U.S. draft evaders coming to Canada was "only a fraction" of those who resisted the Vietnam War.<ref>Squires, Jessica (2013). ''Building Sanctuary: The Movement to Support Vietnam War Resisters in Canada, 1965–73''. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, p.&nbsp;174. {{ISBN|978-0-7748-2524-5}}.</ref> According to a 1978 book by former members of President [[Gerald Ford]]'s Clemency Board, 210,000 Americans were accused of draft offenses and 30,000 left the country.<ref name=Accused>Baskir and Strauss (1978), cited above, p.&nbsp;169.</ref> More recently, Cortright estimated that 60,000 to 100,000 left the US, mainly for Canada or Sweden.<ref name=Cortright>Cortright, David (2008). ''Peace: A History of Movements and Ideas''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp.&nbsp;164–165. {{ISBN|978-0-521-67000-5}}.</ref> Others scattered elsewhere; for example, historian [[Frank Kusch]] mentions Mexico,<ref>Kusch (2001), cited above, p.&nbsp;26.</ref> scholar Anna Wittmann mentions Britain,<ref name=Wittmann /> and journalist [[Jan Wong]] describes one draft evader who sympathized with [[Mao Zedong]]'s China and found refuge there.<ref>Wong, Jan (1997). ''Red China Blues: My Long March from Mao to Now''.  New York: Anchor Books, pp.&nbsp;154–155. {{ISBN|978-0-385-48232-5}}.</ref> Draft evader Ken Kiask spent eight years traveling continuously across the [[Global North and Global South|Global South]] before returning to the US<ref>Kiask, Ken (2015). ''Draft-Dodging Odyssey''. Seattle, WA: CreateSpace / Amazon. {{ISBN|978-1-5087-5169-4}}.</ref>

[[File:Draft dodgers being counseled 1967.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Mark Satin]] (left), director of the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme,<ref>[[John Fisher Burns|Burns, John]] (11 October 1967). "Deaf to the Draft". ''The Globe and Mail'' (Toronto), pp.&nbsp;1, 2.</ref> counseling American draft evaders, 1967]]
[[File:Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Tattered copy of the ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada'' (1968)<ref name=Stewart>Stewart, Luke (December 2018).  "[https://www.academia.edu/37718241/Review_Essay_Mark_Satin_ed._Manual_for_Draft-Age_Immigrants_to_Canada_Toronto_House_of_Anansi_2018_1968_%C3%89tudes_canadiennes_Canadian_Studies_N_85_December_2018_219-223  Review Essay: Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada]". ''Études canadiennes / Canadian Studies'', issue no. 85, pp. 219–223. Published in French and English by Association Française d'Études Canadiennes, [[Institut des Amériques]], France. Retrieved 23 May 2019.</ref> atop Anti-Draft Programme stationery]]

The number of Vietnam-era draft evaders leaving for Canada is hotly contested; an entire book, by scholar Joseph Jones, has been written on that subject.<ref>Jones, Joseph (2005). ''Contending Statistics: The Numbers for U.S. War Resisters in Canada''. Morrisville, NC: [[Lulu (company)|Lulu Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-9737641-0-9}}.</ref> In 2017, [[University of Toronto]] professor [[Robert McGill (writer)|Robert McGill]] cited estimates by four scholars, including Jones, ranging from a floor of 30,000 to a ceiling of 100,000, depending in part on who is being counted as a draft evader.<ref>[[Robert McGill (writer)|McGill, Robert]] (2017). ''War Is Here: The Vietnam War and Canadian Literature''. Kingston, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press, p.&nbsp;272 n.12 (citing scholars John Hagan, David D. Harvey, Joseph Jones, and David S. Surrey). {{ISBN|978-0-7735-5159-6}}.</ref>

Though the presence of U.S. draft evaders and deserters in Canada was initially controversial, the Canadian government eventually chose to welcome them.<ref>Knowles, Valerie (2016). ''Strangers at Our Gates: Canadian Immigration and Immigration Policy, 1540–2015''. Toronto: [[Dundurn Press]], 4th ed., p.&nbsp;214 ("Draft-Age Americans in Canada" section). {{ISBN|978-1-4597-3285-8}}.</ref> Draft evasion was not a criminal offense under Canadian law.<ref>Kasinsky, Renée G. (1976). ''Refugees from Militarism: Draft-Age Americans in Canada''. New Brunswick, NJ: [[Transaction Publishers|Transaction Books]], p.&nbsp;61. {{ISBN|978-0-87855-113-2}}.</ref> The issue of deserters was more complex. [[Desertion]] from the US military was not on the list of crimes for which a person could be extradited under the extradition treaty between Canada and the US;<ref>Satin (2017, orig. 1968), cited above, pp.&nbsp;120–122.</ref> however, desertion was a crime in Canada, and the Canadian military strongly opposed condoning it. In the end, the Canadian government maintained the right to prosecute these deserters, but in practice left them alone and instructed border guards not to ask questions relating to the issue.<ref name="cool">Keung, Nicholas (20 August 2010).  "[https://www.thestar.com/news/insight/article/850824--daring-to-object-iraq-war-resisters-though-often-veterans-themselves-have-been-met-with-a-cool-reception-much-different-from-the-draft-dodgers-of-the-1960s Iraq War Resisters Meet Cool Reception in Canada]." ''Toronto Star.'' Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref>

In Canada, many American Vietnam War evaders received pre-emigration counseling and post-emigration assistance from locally based groups.<ref>Clausen, Oliver (21 May 1967). "Boys Without a Country". ''The New York Times Magazine'', pp.&nbsp;25 and 94–105.</ref> Typically these consisted of American emigrants and Canadian supporters. The largest were the Montreal Council to Aid War Resisters, the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme, and the Vancouver Committee to Aid American War Objectors.<ref>Williams (1971), cited above, pp.&nbsp;56–62.</ref> Journalists often noted their effectiveness.<ref>Magazine or newspaper articles that touched on the effectiveness of one or more of Canada's draft counseling groups include:
* Cowan, Edward (11 February 1968). "Expatriate Draft Evaders Prepare Manual on How to Immigrate to Canada".  ''[[The New York Times]]'', p.&nbsp;7.
* Dunford, Gary (3 February 1968). "Toronto's Anti-Draft Office Jammed". ''[[Toronto Star]]'', p.&nbsp;25.
* Johnson, Olive Skene (August 1967). "Draft-Age Dilemma". ''[[McCall's]]'', pp.&nbsp;34, 150.
* Rosenthal, Harry F. (2 June 1968). "Canada Increasingly Draft Dodgers' Haven". ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', p.&nbsp;H9.
* [[Jan Schreiber|Schreiber, Jan]] (January 1968). "Canada's Haven for Draft Dodgers". ''[[The Progressive]]'', pp.&nbsp;34–36.
* [[Dan Wakefield|Wakefield, Dan]] (March 1968). "Supernation at Peace and War". ''[[The Atlantic]]'', pp.&nbsp;42–45.</ref> The ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada'', published jointly by the Toronto Anti-Draft Programme and the [[House of Anansi Press]], sold nearly 100,000 copies,<ref>Adams, James (20 October 2007). "'The Big Guys Keep Being Surprised by Us.'" ''The Globe and Mail'' (Toronto), p.&nbsp;R6 (statting that "close to 100,000" had been sold).</ref><ref name=Roy>[[Roy MacSkimming|MacSkimming, Roy]] (26 August 2017). "[https://beta.theglobeandmail.com/arts/books-and-media/book-reviews/review-mark-satins-manual-for-draft-age-immigrants-to-canada-is-just-as-timely-as-ever/article36087618  Review: Mark Satin's Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada Is Just as Timely as Ever]". ''The Globe and Mail'', p.&nbsp;R12 (stating that 65,000 had been sold by Canadian publishers and another 30,000 had been reproduced in whole or in part by U.S. anti-war entities). Online text dated 25 August 2017. Retrieved 26 November 2017.</ref> and one sociologist found that the ''Manual'' had been read by over 55% of his [[Sample (statistics)|data sample]] of US Vietnam War emigrants either before or after they arrived in Canada.<ref>Hagan, John (2001). ''Northern Passage: American Vietnam War Resisters in Canada.'' Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, pp.&nbsp;77–78.  {{ISBN|978-0-674-00471-9}}.</ref> In addition to the counseling groups (and at least formally separate from them) was a Toronto-based political organization, the Union of American Exiles, better known as "Amex."<ref>Hagan (2001), pp. 80–81.</ref><ref>Williams (1971), pp.&nbsp;79–83.</ref> It sought to speak for American draft evaders and deserters in Canada. For example, it lobbied and campaigned for universal, unconditional amnesty, and hosted an international conference in 1974 opposing anything short of that.<ref>Hagan (2001), pp.&nbsp;81 and 161–62.</ref>

Those who went abroad faced imprisonment or forced military service if they returned home. In September 1974, President Gerald Ford offered an amnesty program for draft dodgers that required them to work in alternative service occupations for periods of six to 24 months.<ref>Author unspecified (14 September 1974).  "[https://www.nytimes.com/1974/09/14/archives/flexible-amnesty-plan-is-reported-set-by-ford.html  Flexible Amnesty Plan Is Reported Set by Ford]". ''[[The New York Times]]'', p.&nbsp;9.  Retrieved 28 July 2018.</ref> In 1977, one day after his inauguration, President [[Jimmy Carter]] fulfilled a campaign promise by offering pardons to anyone who had evaded the draft and requested one. It antagonized critics on both sides, with the right complaining that those pardoned paid no penalty and the left complaining that requesting a pardon required the admission of a crime.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schulzinger|first= Robert D. |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dq4QiUWHrOIC&pg=PT38 |title=A Time for Peace: The Legacy of the Vietnam War|location= New York|publisher= Oxford University Press |access-date= July 30, 2011 |isbn=978-0-19-507190-0}}</ref>

[[File:Jim Green (cropped).jpg|thumb|266x266px|Vancouver city councillor [[Jim Green (Canadian politician)|Jim Green]] was one of several draft evaders who became prominent in Canada.]]
[[File:Hendricks-leboeuf2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|Gay rights advocate [[Michael Hendricks and René Leboeuf|Michael Hendricks]] (right) is another draft evader who affected Canadian life.]]

It remains a matter of debate whether emigration to Canada and elsewhere during the Vietnam War was an effective, or even a genuine, war resistance strategy. Scholar Michael Foley argues that it was not only relatively ineffective, but that it served to siphon off disaffected young Americans from the larger struggle.<ref name=Foley /> Activists [[Rennie Davis]] and [[Tom Hayden]] reportedly held similar views.<ref>Kasinsky (1976), cited above, p. 98.</ref> By contrast, authors John Hagan and Roger N. Williams recognize the American emigrants as "war resisters" in the subtitles of their books about the emigrants,<ref>Williams (1971), cited above.</ref><ref>Hagan (2001), cited above.</ref> and ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada'' author [[Mark Satin]] contended that public awareness of tens of thousands of young Americans leaving for Canada would<ref>Kasinsky (1976), p.&nbsp;104.</ref><ref>Satin, Mark (2017). "Afterword: Bringing Draft Dodgers to Canada in the 1960s". In Satin, Mark (2017, orig. 1968). ''Manual for Draft-Age Immigrants to Canada''.  House of Anansi Press, "A List" reprint ed, p.&nbsp;129. {{ISBN|978-1-4870-0289-3}}.</ref> – and eventually did<ref>Satin (2017), p.&nbsp;135.</ref><ref>Satin, Mark (14 June 2017).  "[https://houseofanansi.com/blogs/anansi/godfrey-and-me-a-guest-post-by-mark-satin-1  Godfrey and Me]".  [[House of Anansi Press]] website.  Retrieved 4 April 2019.</ref> – help end the war.

Some draft evaders returned to the U.S. from Canada after the 1977 pardon, but according to sociologist John Hagan, about half of them stayed on.<ref>Hagan, John (2001), pp.&nbsp;3 and 241–42.</ref> This young and mostly educated population expanded Canada's arts and academic scenes, and helped push Canadian politics further to the left, though some Canadians, including some principled nationalists, found their presence or impact troubling.<ref>These points have been made in a series of academic journal articles by Canadian social historian David Churchill:
* Churchill, David S. (2004). "[http://hssh.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/hssh/article/viewFile/4372/3570 An Ambiguous Welcome: Vietnam Draft Resistance, the Canadian State, and Cold War Containment]". ''Histoire Sociale&nbsp;/ Social History'', vol.&nbsp;37, no.&nbsp;73, pp. 1–26.
* Churchill, David S. (Fall 2010). "[https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/2010-v39-n1-uhr3960/045106ar.pdf  American Expatriates and the Building of Alternative Social Space in Toronto, 1965–1977]". ''Urban History Review'', vol. XXXVIX, no. 1, pp. 31–44.
* Churchill, David S. (June 2012). "Draft Resistance, Lefr Nationalism, and the Politics of Anti-Imperialism". ''[[Canadian Historical Review]]'', vol. 93, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;227–260.</ref> American draft evaders who left for Canada and became prominent there include author [[William Gibson]], politician [[Jim Green (Canadian politician)|Jim Green]], gay rights advocate [[Michael Hendricks and René Leboeuf|Michael Hendricks]], attorney [[Jeffry House]], author [[Keith Maillard]], playwright [[John Murrell (playwright)|John Murrell]], television personality [[Eric Nagler]], film critic [[Jay Scott]], and musician [[Jesse Winchester]]. Other draft evaders from the Vietnam era remain in Sweden and elsewhere.<ref>Baskir and Strauss (1978), p.&nbsp;201.</ref><ref>Hagan (2001), cited above, p.&nbsp;186 (quoting Baskir and Strauss).</ref>

Two academic literary critics have written at length about autobiographical novels by draft evaders who went to Canada – Rachel Adams in the ''[[Yale Journal of Criticism]]''<ref name=Rachel>Adams, Rachel (Fall 2005).  "[http://www.racheladams.net/articles/GoingtoCanada.pdf 'Going to Canada': The Politics and Poetics of Northern Exodus]". ''Yale Journal of Criticism'', vol. 18, no. 2, pp.&nbsp;417–425 ("The Things They Wrote" section). Reproduced at the [[Project MUSE]] database.  Retrieved 24 November 2017.</ref> and [[Robert McGill (writer)|Robert McGill]] in a book from [[McGill-Queen's University Press]].<ref name=Robert>McGill (2017), cited above, pp.&nbsp;172–181 ("The Alternative America in Draft-Dodger Novels" sub-chapter).</ref> Both critics discuss Morton Redner's ''Getting Out'' (1971) and [[Mark Satin]]'s ''Confessions of a Young Exile'' (1976), and Adams also discusses Allen Morgan's ''Dropping Out in 3/4 Time'' (1972) and Daniel Peters's ''Border Crossing'' (1978). All these books portray their protagonists' views, motives, activities, and relationships in detail.<ref name=Rachel /><ref name=Robert /> Adams says they contain some surprises:

<blockquote>It is to be expected that the draft dodgers denounce the state as an oppressive bureaucracy, using the vernacular of the time to rail against "the machine" and "the system." What is more surprising is their general resistance to mass movements, a sentiment that contradicts the association of the draft dodger with sixties protest found in more recent work by [Scott] Turow or [Mordecai] Richler. In contrast to stereotypes, the draft dodger in these narratives is neither an unthinking follower of movement ideology nor a radical who attempts to convert others to his cause. ... [Another surprise is that the dodgers] have little interest in romantic love. Their libidinal hyperactivity accords with [Herbert] Marcuse's belief in the liberatory power of eros. They are far less worried about whether particular relationships will survive the flight to Canada than about the gratification of their immediate sexual urges.<ref>Adams (Fall 2005), p.&nbsp;419.</ref></blockquote>

Later memoirs by Vietnam-era draft evaders who went to Canada include Donald Simons's ''I Refuse'' (1992),<ref>Beelaert, Amy M. (November 1993). "Voices of Our Times: I Refuse: Memories of a Vietnam War Objector".  ''[[English Journal|The English Journal]]'', vol. 82, no. 7, p.&nbsp;84.</ref><ref>Peters, Pamela J. (April 1992). "I Refuse: Memories of a Vietnam War Objector", ''[[Library Journal]]'', vol. 117, no. 6, p.&nbsp;129.</ref> [[George Fetherling]]'s ''Travels by Night'' (1994),<ref>[[David Macfarlane|Macfarlane, David]] (30 April 1994). "Fetherling's Talents Take Wing". ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'', p.&nbsp;C20.</ref><ref>Ware, Randall (1 May 1994). "A Grey Memoir of a Colorful Time". ''[[Ottawa Citizen]]'', p.&nbsp;B3.</ref> and [[Mark Frutkin]]'s ''Erratic North'' (2008).<ref>Coates, Donna (Winter 2009). "Artful Dodgers". ''[[Canadian Literature (journal)|Canadian Literature]]'', issue no. 203, p.&nbsp;147. A publication of the [[University of British Columbia]].</ref><ref>[[Wayne Grady (author)|Grady, Wayne]] (8 October 2008). "An Artful Dodger".  ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'', p.&nbsp;D4.</ref>

=====Prominent people arguably manipulating the system=====
For decades after the Vietnam War ended, prominent Americans were being accused of having manipulated the draft system to their advantage.

According to a column by [[E. J. Dionne]] in ''[[The Washington Post]]'', by 2006 politicians whom opponents had accused of improperly avoiding the draft included [[George W. Bush military service controversy|George W. Bush]], [[Dick Cheney#Early life and education|Dick Cheney]], and [[Bill Clinton#College and law school years|Bill Clinton]].<ref>[[E. J. Dionne|Dionne, E.J.]] (17 January 2006)."[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/16/AR2006011600913.html Murtha and the Mudslingers]". ''The Washington Post'', p.&nbsp;A17. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref>

[[File:Ted Nugent at the Redneck Country Club, July 6, 2017 MG 9741 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ted Nugent]] reportedly took extreme measures to avoid the draft.<ref name=Sirius />]]

In a 1970s ''[[High Times]]'' article, American singer-songwriter [[Ted Nugent]] stated that he took [[Methamphetamine|crystal meth]], and urinated and defecated in his pants before his physical, in order to avoid being drafted into the Vietnam War.<ref name=Sirius>[[R. U. Sirius|Sirius, R.U.]] (2009). ''Everybody Must Get Stoned: Rock Stars on Drugs''. [[Kensington Books|Kensington Publishing Corp.]], pp.&nbsp;47–48.  {{ISBN|978-0-8065-3073-4}}.</ref> In a 1990 interview with a large Detroit newspaper, Nugent made similar statements.<ref>Noriyuki, Duane (15 July 1990). "Ted Nugent Grows Up?". ''[[Detroit Free Press]]'', magazine section, pp.&nbsp;6, 10."[https://www.mediamatters.org/blog/2014/03/26/the-worst-ted-nugent-interview-of-all-time/198607  The Worst Ted Nugent Interview of All Time]".  [[Media Matters for America]], online article (see under the sub-head "Nugent Says He Soiled Himself To Avoid Vietnam Among Other Bizarre Anecdotes"). Retrieved 27 July 2018.</ref>

Actor and comedian [[Chevy Chase]] also misled his draft board. In 1989, approximately two decades after the fact, Chase revealed on a television talk show that he avoided the Vietnam War by making several false claims to his draft board, including that he harbored homosexual tendencies. He added he was "not very proud" of having done that.<ref>O'Connor, John J. (11 January 1989). "[https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/11/arts/review-television-late-night-chitchat-additions-pat-sajak-and-arsenio-hall.html  Review / Television; Late-Night Chitchat Additions: Pat Sajak and Arsenio Hall]". ''The New York Times'', p.&nbsp;C-17. Retrieved 1 November 2019.</ref> Several politically charged books subsequently discussed Chase's behavior.<ref>Kusch (2001), cited above, p.&nbsp;71.</ref><ref>Gottlieb, Sherry Gershon (1991). ''Hell No, We Won't Go: Resisting the Draft During the Vietnam War''.  New York: Viking Press, p.&nbsp;96. {{ISBN|978-0-670-83935-3}}.</ref>

Radio talk show host [[Rush Limbaugh]] {{clarify span|reason=Did he, or didn't he? See MOS:ALLEGED. |reportedly|date=July 2020}} avoided the Vietnam draft because of anal [[cyst]]s. In a 2011 book critical of Limbaugh, journalist John K. Wilson accused Limbaugh making "hyperbolic attacks on foreign policy".<ref>Wilson, John K. (2011). ''The Most Dangerous Man in America: Rush Limbaugh's Assault on Reason''. New York: St. Martin's Press, p.&nbsp;80 ("Limbaugh at War" section). {{ISBN|978-0-312-61214-6}}.</ref>

Former Republican presidential nominee [[Mitt Romney]]'s deferment has been questioned. {{clarify span|reason=Have we changed gears here, or is this still about Romney? The interpolated ' – Romney's church – ' here is highly suspect. |During the Vietnam War, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) – Romney's church – became embroiled in controversy for deferring large numbers of its young members."|date=July 2020}}<ref>[[Michael Kranish|Kranish, Michael]]; Hellman, Scott (2012). ''The Real Romney''. New York: HarperCollins, pp.&nbsp;61–62. {{ISBN|978-0-06-212327-5}}.</ref> The LDS Church eventually agreed to cap the number of missionary deferments it sought for members in any one region.<ref name=Kranish>[[Michael Kranish|Kranish, Michael]] (24 June 2007).  "[http://archive.boston.com/news/politics/2008/specials/romney/articles/part1_side_2  Mormon Church Obtained Vietnam Draft Deferrals for Romney, Other Missionaries]". ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', web exclusive, now at [[Boston.com]] regional website. Retrieved 17 January 2018.</ref> After Romney dropped out of Stanford University and was about to lose his student deferment, he decided to become a missionary; and the LDS Church in his home state of Michigan chose to give him one of that state's missionary deferments.<ref name=Conason /> In a ''[[Salon (website)|Salon]]'' article from 2007, journalist [[Joe Conason]] noted that Romney's father had been governor of Michigan at the time.<ref name=Conason>[[Joe Conason|Conason, Joe]] (20 July 2007).  "[https://www.salon.com/2007/07/20/rudy_and_romney  Rudy and Romney: Artful Dodgers]". [[Salon (website)|Salon]] online magazine. Retrieved 17 January 2018.</ref>

Attention has also been paid to independent Senator [[Bernie Sanders]]'s failure to serve. In an article in ''[[The Atlantic]]'', it was reported that, after graduating from the University of Chicago in 1964, and moving back to New York City, the future candidate for the Democratic Presidential nomination applied for [[conscientious objector]] status – even though as Sanders acknowledged to the reporter, he was not religious.<ref name=Banks>[[Russell Banks|Banks, Russell]] (5 October 2015).  "[https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/10/bernie-sanders-mayor/407413 Bernie Sanders, the Socialist Mayor]". ''[[The Atlantic]]'', online; third section, 10th paragraph. Retrieved 27 July 2018.</ref> (Sanders was opposed to the Vietnam War.<ref>Banks (5 October 2015), cited above, third section, 9th paragraph. Retrieved 27 July 2018.</ref> At the time, however, CO status was granted entirely on the basis of religious opposition to all war.<ref name=Banks />) Sanders's CO status was denied. Nevertheless, a "lengthy series of hearings, an FBI investigation and numerous postponements and delays" took him to age 26 at which point he was no longer eligible for the draft.<ref name=Banks /> In a 2015 book critical of Sanders, journalist Harry Jaffe revisited that portion of the ''Atlantic'' article, emphasizing that by the time Sanders's "numerous hearings" had run their course he was "too old to be drafted".<ref>Jaffe, Harry (2015).  ''Why Bernie Sanders Matters''. Regan Arts / [[Phaidon Press]], p.&nbsp;54. This book was published in December 2015, two months before the [[Iowa Democratic caucuses, 2016]]. {{ISBN|978-1-68245-017-8}}.</ref>

U.S. president [[Donald Trump]] graduated from college in the spring of 1968, and became eligible for military service. Trump however, due to a personal friend of his father's, a medical doctor, was granted a diagnosis of [[Exostosis|bone spurs]] in his heels. The diagnosis allowed Trump to receive a medical deferment.<ref name=eder2>Eder, Steve; Philipps, Dave (1 August 2016). "[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/02/us/politics/donald-trump-draft-record.html?mcubz=3 Donald Trump's Draft Deferments: Four for College, One for Bad Feet]". ''The New York Times'', p.&nbsp;A1. Print edition has a different date and headline. Retrieved 17 January 2018.</ref>

=====Pardons=====
In 1977, President [[Jimmy Carter]] issued a pardon giving unconditional amnesty to Vietnam war draft resisters.<ref name=Draft>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/01/22/archives/texts-of-documents-on-the-pardon.html |title=Texts of Documents on the Pardon |date=January 22, 1977 |work=The New York Times |access-date=April 17, 2018}}</ref>