Editing Salt marsh (section)

==Restoration and management==
[[File:Salicornia.jpg|thumb|200px|Glasswort (''[[Salicornia]]'' spp.) species [[Endemism|endemic]] to the [[high marsh]] zone.]]
The perception of bay salt marshes as a coastal 'wasteland' has since changed, acknowledging that they are one of the most biologically productive habitats on earth, rivalling [[tropical rainforest]]s. Salt marshes are ecologically important, providing habitats for native migratory fish and acting as sheltered feeding and nursery grounds.<ref name="king"/> They are now protected by legislation in many countries to prevent the loss of these ecologically important habitats.<ref name="broome">Broome, SW, Seneca, ED, Woodhouse, WW (1988). "Tidal Marsh Restoration". ''Aquatic Botany'' '''32:''' 1–22.</ref> In the United States and Europe, they are now accorded a high level of protection by the [[Clean Water Act]] and the [[Habitats Directive]] respectively. With the impacts of this habitats and their importance now realised, a growing interest in restoring salt marshes through [[managed retreat]] or the reclamation of land has been established. However, many Asian countries such as China still need to recognise the value of marshlands. With their ever-growing populations and intense development along the coast, the value of salt marshes tends to be ignored and the land continues to be reclaimed.<ref name="bromberg"/>

Bakker et al. (1997)<ref name="bakker">Bakker, JP, Esselink, P, Van Der Wal, R, Dijkema, KS (1997). 'Options for restoration and management of coastal salt marshes in Europe,' in Urbanska, KM, Webb, NR, Edwards, PJ (eds), ''Restoration Ecology and Sustainable Development''. Cambridge University Press, UK. p. 286-322.</ref> suggests two options available for restoring salt marshes. The first is to abandon all human interference and leave the salt marsh to complete its natural development. These types of restoration projects are often unsuccessful as vegetation tends to struggle to revert to its original structure and the natural tidal cycles are shifted due to land changes. The second option suggested by Bakker et al. (1997)<ref name="bakker"/> is to restore the destroyed habitat into its natural state either at the original site or as a replacement at a different site. Under natural conditions, recovery can take 2–10 years or even longer depending on the nature and degree of the disturbance and the relative maturity of the marsh involved.<ref name="broome"/> Marshes in their pioneer stages of development will recover more rapidly than mature marshes<ref name="broome"/> as they are often first to colonize the land. It is important to note that restoration can often be sped up through the replanting of native vegetation.
[[File:Phragmites australis Schilfrohr.jpg|thumb|Common reed (''[[Phragmites australis]]'') an invasive species in degraded marshes in the northeastern United States.]]
This last approach is often the most practiced and generally more successful than allowing the area to naturally recover on its own. The salt marshes in the state of Connecticut in the United States have long been an area lost to fill and dredging. As of 1969, the Tidal Wetland Act was introduced that ceased this practice,<ref name="warren"/> but despite the introduction of the act, the system was still degrading due to alterations in tidal flow. One area in Connecticut is the marshes on Barn Island. These marshes were diked then impounded with salt and brackish marsh during 1946–1966.<ref name="warren"/> As a result, the marsh shifted to a freshwater state and became dominated by the invasive species ''P. australis'', ''[[Typha angustifolia]]'' and ''[[Typha latifolia|T. latifolia]]'' that have little ecological connection to the area.<ref name="warren"/>

By 1980, a restoration programme was put in place that has now been running for over 20 years.<ref name="warren"/> This programme has aimed to reconnect the marshes by returning tidal flow along with the ecological functions and characteristics of the marshes back to their original state. In the case of Barn Island, reduction of the invasive species has been initiated, re-establishing the tidal-marsh vegetation along with animal species such as fish and insects. This example highlights that considerable time and effort is needed to effectively restore salt marsh systems. The timescale for salt marsh recovery is dependent on the development stage of the marsh, type and extent of the disturbance, geographical location and the environmental and physiological stress factors to the marsh-associated flora and fauna.

Although much effort has gone into restoring salt marshes worldwide, further research is needed. There are many setbacks and problems associated with marsh restoration that require careful long-term monitoring. Information on all components of the salt marsh ecosystem should be understood and monitored from sedimentation, nutrient, and tidal influences, to behaviour patterns and tolerances of both flora and fauna species.<ref name="broome"/> Once a better understanding of these processes is acquired, and not just locally, but over a global scale, then more sound and practical management and restoration efforts can be implemented to preserve these valuable marshes and restore them to their original state.

While humans are situated along coastlines, there will always be the possibility of human-induced disturbances despite the number of restoration efforts we plan to implement. Dredging, pipelines for offshore petroleum resources, highway construction, accidental toxic spills or just plain carelessness are examples that will for some time now and into the future be the major influences of salt marsh degradation.<ref name="broome"/>
[[File:Atlantic ribbed mussel.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Atlantic ribbed mussel]], found in the [[low marsh]]]]
In addition to restoring and managing salt marsh systems based on scientific principles, the opportunity should be taken to educate public audiences of their importance biologically and their purpose as serving as a natural buffer for flood protection.<ref name="king"/> Because salt marshes are often located next to urban areas, they are likely to receive more visitors than remote [[wetland]]s. By physically seeing the marsh, people are more likely to take notice and be more aware of the environment around them. An example of public involvement occurred at the [[Famosa Slough State Marine Conservation Area]] in [[San Diego]], where a "friends" group worked for over a decade in trying to prevent the area from being developed.<ref name="callaway">{{Cite journal |last=Callaway |first=John C. |last2=Zedler |first2=Joy B. |date=June 2004 |title=Restoration of urban salt marshes: Lessons from southern California |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/B:UECO.0000036268.84546.53 |journal=Urban Ecosystems |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=107–124 |doi=10.1023/B:UECO.0000036268.84546.53 |issn=1083-8155|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  Eventually, the {{convert|5|hectare|acre|adj=on}} site was bought by the city and the group worked together to restore the area. The project involved removing of invasive species and replanting with native ones, along with public talks to other locals, frequent bird walks and clean-up events.<ref name="callaway"/>