Editing Human migration (section)

== Migration governance ==
By their very nature, international migration and displacement are transnational issues concerning the origin and destination States and States through which migrants may travel (often referred to as "transit" States) or in which they are hosted following displacement across national borders. And yet, somewhat paradoxically, the majority of migration governance has historically remained with individual states. Their policies and regulations on migration are typically made at the national level.<ref>McAuliffe, M. and A.M. Goossens. 2018. "Regulating international migration in an era of increasing interconnectedness". In: ''Handbook of Migration and Globalisation'' (A. Triandafyllidou, ed.). Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham/Northampton, pp. 86–104.</ref> For the most part, migration governance has been closely associated with State sovereignty. States retain the power of deciding on the entry and stay of non-nationals because migration directly affects some of the defining elements of a State.<ref>For example, a permanent population and a defined territory, as per article 1 of the 1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and
Duties of States.</ref> Comparative surveys reveal varying degrees of openness to migrants across countries, considering policies such as visa availability, employment prerequisites, and paths to residency.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-05 |title=The CEO Agenda for an Era of Innovation Without Borders |url=https://www.bcg.com/en-us/publications/2022/innovation-without-borders-era-with-global-talent |access-date=2022-06-20 |website=United States – EN |language=en-US}}</ref>

Bilateral and multilateral arrangements are features of migration governance at an international level. There are several global arrangements in the form of international treaties in which States have reached an agreement on the application of human rights and the related responsibilities of States in specific areas. The 1966 [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] and the 1951 [[Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees]] (Refugee Convention) are two significant examples notable for being widely ratified. Other migration conventions have not been so broadly accepted, such as the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, which still has no traditional countries of destination among its States parties. Beyond this, there have been numerous multilateral and global initiatives, dialogues and processes on migration over several decades. The [[Global Compact for Migration|Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration]] (Global Compact for Migration) is another milestone, as the first internationally negotiated statement of objectives for migration governance striking a balance between migrants' rights and the principle of States' sovereignty over their territory. Although it is not legally binding, the Global Compact for Migration was adopted by consensus in December 2018 at a United Nations conference in which more than 150 [[United Nations Member States]] participated and, later that same month, in the [[United Nations General Assembly]] (UNGA), by a vote among the Member States of 152 to 5 (with 12 abstentions).<ref>IOM. 'Chapter 11: Recent developments in the global governance of migration: An update to the World Migration Report 2018.' [https://www.iom.int/wmr/2020/chapter/11 World Migration Report 2020. p. 291.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221182355/https://www.iom.int/wmr/2020/chapter/11 |date=2019-12-21 }}</ref>

===Migration programs===
[[Colonialism]] and [[colonization]] opens up distant territories and their people to migration, having dominated what is identified as [[History of human migration#Modern history|modern migration]]. Colonialism globalized systems of migration and established ties effective until today.<ref name="o590">{{cite book | last=Mayblin | first=Lucy | title=Migration Studies and Colonialism | publisher=Polity | publication-place=Cambridge Medford (Mass.) | date=2021-01-26 | isbn=978-1-5095-4293-2 | page=}}</ref>

While classic modern colonialism relied on the subjugation and rule of local [[indigenous peoples]] by small groups of conquering [[metropole|metropolitan]] people, soon [[forced migration]], through [[slavery]] or [[indentured servitude]] supplanted the subjugated local indigenous peoples.
[[Settler colonialism]] later continued or established the rule of the colonizers through migration, particularly [[settler|settlement]].
Settler colonies relied on the attraction of [[Metropole|metropolitan]] migrants with the [[Manifest destiny|promise of settlement]] and increasingly outnumbering, [[ethnic cleansing|displacing]] or [[genocide|killing]] [[indigenous peoples]].

Only in the late stage of colonialism migration flows oriented towards the metropole instead of out or outside of it. After [[decolonization]] migration ties between former colonies to former metropoles have been continuing. Today's independent countries have developed selective or targeted [[foreign worker]] policies or [[Guest worker program|programs]], with the aim of boosting economies with skilled or relatively cheap new local labour, while discrimination and exploitation are often fed by [[ethnic nationalism|ethnic nationalist]] opposition to such policies.<ref name="i573">{{cite book | last=Gonzalez | first=Gilbert G. | title=Guest Workers Or Colonized Labor? | publisher=Routledge | publication-place=Boulder (Colo.) | date=2013 | isbn=978-1-61205-447-6 | page=}}</ref>