Editing Learning (section)

== Factors affecting learning ==
{{main|Learning theory (education)}}

===Instructional techniques===
{{Main|Instructional theory}}
Certain techniques and factors can affect [[Long-term memory|long-term retention]]:<ref>[https://think.kera.org/2017/04/11/the-science-of-learning/ The Science Of Learning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517050341/https://think.kera.org/2017/04/11/the-science-of-learning/ |date=2022-05-17 }} – April 11, 2017 (podcast interview with Ulrich Boser)</ref>
* The [[spacing effect]] means that lessons or studying spaced out over time ([[spaced repetition]]) are better than [[Cramming (education)|cramming]] due to the [[forgetting curve]].
* [[Desirable difficulty]]
* [[Learning by teaching]]
* "Self-explaining" (paraphrasing material to oneself) rather than passive reading
* [[Testing effect]] and low-stakes [[quizzing]]

=== Genetics ===
{{main|Heritability of IQ}}
Some aspects of intelligence are inherited genetically, so different learners to some degree have different abilities with regard to learning and speed of learning.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}

=== Socioeconomic and physical conditions ===

Problems like [[malnutrition]], [[fatigue]], and poor physical health can slow learning, as can bad ventilation or poor lighting at home, and unhygienic living conditions.<ref name="Ref 1">{{cite book|last1=Mangal|first1=S.K.|title=Essentials of Educational Psychology|year= 2007|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd|isbn= 978-81-203-3055-9|page=736}}</ref><ref name="Ref 2">{{cite book|last1=Aggarwal|first1=J.C|title=Essentials Of Educational Psychology|year= 2009|publisher=Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd|isbn= 978-81-259-2292-6|page=596|edition=Second}}</ref>

The design, quality, and setting of a [[learning space]], such as a school or classroom, can each be critical to the success of a [[learning environment]]. Size, configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light, acoustics, furniture—can all affect a student's learning. The tools used by both instructors and students directly affect how information is conveyed, from the display and writing surfaces (blackboards, markerboards, tack surfaces) to digital technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rise, student attention is reduced, and furniture arrangement is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly arranged, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are limited and the ability to suit the learning or lesson style is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student morale suffers, so does motivation to attend school.<ref>[http://www.edutopia.org/article/new-teachers-designing-classroom-learning-environment-resources ''New Teachers: Designing Learning Environments'', May 7, 2015] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328041804/http://www.edutopia.org/article/new-teachers-designing-classroom-learning-environment-resources |date=March 28, 2016 }}. Retrieved 2016-03-19</ref><ref>[http://www.edutopia.org/blog/the-physical-environment-of-classrooms-mark-phillips ''A Place for Learning: The Physical Environment of Classrooms'', Mark Phillips, May 20, 2014] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313091539/http://www.edutopia.org/blog/the-physical-environment-of-classrooms-mark-phillips |date=March 13, 2016 }}. Retrieved 2016-03-19</ref>

=== Psychological factors ===

[[Intrinsic motivation]], such as a student's own intellectual curiosity or desire to experiment or explore, has been found to sustain learning more effectively than extrinsic motivations such as grades or parental requirements. [[Rote learning]] involves repetition in order to reinforce facts in memory, but has been criticized as ineffective and "[[drill and kill]]" since it kills intrinsic motivation.  Alternatives to rote learning include [[active learning]] and [[meaningful learning]].

The speed, accuracy, and retention, depend upon [[aptitude]], [[Attitude (psychology)|attitude]], interest, attention, energy level, and [[Motivation#Applications in education|motivation]] of the students. Students who answer a question properly or give good results should be praised. This encouragement increases their ability and helps them produce better results. Certain attitudes, such as always finding fault in a student's answer or provoking or embarrassing the student in front of a class are counterproductive.<ref name="Ref 3">{{cite book|last1=Mangal|first1=SK|title=Advanced Educational Psychology|year=2002|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-203-2038-3|page=536|edition=Second}}</ref><ref name="Ref 4">{{cite book|last1=Bhatia|first1=H.R|title=Elements Of Educational Psychology|year=1973|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn= 978-81-250-0029-7|page=558}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=March 2022}}

===Epigenetic factors===
{{Further|Epigenetics in learning and memory}}
The underlying molecular basis of learning appears to be dynamic changes in [[gene expression]] occurring in [[brain]] [[neuron]]s that are introduced by [[epigenetic]] mechanisms.  Epigenetic regulation of gene expression involves, most notably, chemical modification of [[DNA]] or DNA-associated [[histone]] proteins.  These chemical modifications can cause long-lasting changes in gene expression. Epigenetic mechanisms involved in learning include the [[DNA methylation|methylation]] and [[DNA demethylation|demethylation]] of neuronal DNA as well as [[histone methylation|methylation]], [[histone acetylation and deacetylation|acetylation and deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins]].

During learning, information processing in the brain involves induction of [[DNA oxidation|oxidative modification in neuronal DNA]] followed by the employment of [[DNA repair]] processes that introduce epigenetic alterations.  In particular, the DNA repair processes of [[non-homologous end joining]] and [[base excision repair]] are employed in learning and memory formation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Li | first1 = X | last2 = Marshall | first2 = PR | last3 = Leighton | first3 = LJ | last4 = Zajaczkowski | first4 = EL | last5 = Wang | first5 = Z | last6 = Madugalle | first6 = SU | last7 = Yin | first7 = J | last8 = Bredy | first8 = TW | last9 = Wei | first9 = W | year = 2019 | title = The DNA Repair-Associated Protein Gadd45γ Regulates the Temporal Coding of Immediate Early Gene Expression within the Prelimbic Prefrontal Cortex and Is Required for the Consolidation of Associative Fear Memory | journal = J Neurosci | volume = 39 | issue = 6| pages = 970–983 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2024-18.2018 | pmid = 30545945 | pmc = 6363930 }} Erratum in: {{cite journal | pmid = 30545945 | doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2024-18.2018 | volume=39 | title=The DNA Repair-Associated Protein Gadd45γ Regulates the Temporal Coding of Immediate Early Gene Expression within the Prelimbic Prefrontal Cortex and Is Required for the Consolidation of Associative Fear Memory | pmc=6363930 | year=2019 | journal=J Neurosci | pages=970–983 | last1 = Li | first1 = X | last2 = Marshall | first2 = PR | last3 = Leighton | first3 = LJ | last4 = Zajaczkowski | first4 = EL | last5 = Wang | first5 = Z | last6 = Madugalle | first6 = SU | last7 = Yin | first7 = J | last8 = Bredy | first8 = TW | last9 = Wei | first9 = W| issue=6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brito | first1 = David V.C. | last2 = Kupke | first2 = Janina | last3 = Gulmez Karaca | first3 = Kubra | last4 = Zeuch | first4 = Benjamin | last5 = Oliveira | first5 = Ana M.M. | year = 2020| title = Mimicking Age-Associated Gadd45γ Dysregulation Results in Memory Impairments in Young Adult Mice | journal = J Neurosci | volume = 40 | issue = 6| pages = 1197–1210 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1621-19.2019 | pmid = 31826946 | pmc = 7002144 }}</ref>

===General cognition-related factors===
{{Excerpt|Development of the nervous system in humans|Adult neural development|paragraphs=2}}

===Adult learning vs children's learning===
{{See also|Aging brain}}
Learning is often [[Development of the nervous system in humans|more efficient]] in [[children]] and takes longer or is more difficult with [[aging|age]]. A study using [[neuroimaging]] identified rapid [[neurotransmitter]] [[GABA]] boosting as a major potential explanation-component for why that is.<ref>{{cite news |title=Brain scans shed light on how kids learn faster than adults |url=https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2022/11/17/brain-scans-children-learn/9721668697147/ |access-date=17 December 2022 |work=UPI |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=Sebastian M. |last2=Becker |first2=Markus |last3=Qi |first3=Andrea |last4=Geiger |first4=Patricia |last5=Frank |first5=Ulrike I. |last6=Rosedahl |first6=Luke A. |last7=Malloni |first7=Wilhelm M. |last8=Sasaki |first8=Yuka |last9=Greenlee |first9=Mark W. |last10=Watanabe |first10=Takeo |title=Efficient learning in children with rapid GABA boosting during and after training |journal=Current Biology |date=5 December 2022 |volume=32 |issue=23 |pages=5022–5030.e7 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2022.10.021 |pmid=36384138 |language=English |issn=0960-9822|biorxiv=10.1101/2022.01.02.474022|s2cid=253571891|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022CBio...32E5022F }}</ref>

Children's brains contain more "[[silent synapse]]s" that are inactive [[Connectome|until recruited]] as part of [[neuroplasticity]] and flexible learning or [[memory|memories]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lloreda |first1=Claudia López |title=Adult mouse brains are teeming with 'silent synapses' |work=Science News |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/adult-mouse-brains-silent-synapses-memories |access-date=18 December 2022 |date=16 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vardalaki |first1=Dimitra |last2=Chung |first2=Kwanghun |last3=Harnett |first3=Mark T. |title=Filopodia are a structural substrate for silent synapses in adult neocortex |journal=Nature |date=December 2022 |volume=612 |issue=7939 |pages=323–327 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05483-6 |pmid=36450984 |bibcode=2022Natur.612..323V |s2cid=254122483 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05483-6 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription}}
* University press release: {{cite news |last1=Trafton |first1=Anne |title=Silent synapses are abundant in the adult brain |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-11-silent-synapses-abundant-adult-brain.html |access-date=18 December 2022 |work=Massachusetts Institute of Technology via medicalxpress.com |language=en}}</ref> Neuroplasticity is heightened during critical or sensitive periods of brain development, mainly referring to brain development during [[child development]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ismail |first1=Fatima Yousif |last2=Fatemi |first2=Ali |last3=Johnston |first3=Michael V. |title=Cerebral plasticity: Windows of opportunity in the developing brain |journal=European Journal of Paediatric Neurology |date=1 January 2017 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=23–48 |doi=10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.07.007 |pmid=27567276 |language=English |issn=1090-3798}}</ref>

However researchers, after subjecting late middle aged participants to university courses, suggest perceived age differences in learning may be a result of differences in time, support, environment, and attitudes, rather than inherent ability.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.apa.org/news/podcasts/speaking-of-psychology/lifelong-learning |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=www.apa.org}}</ref>

What humans learn at the early stages, and what they learn to apply, sets humans on course for life or has a disproportional impact.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Buxton |first1=Alex |title=What Happens in the Brain When Children Learn? |url=https://neurosciencenews.com/child-learning-prefrontal-lobe-3622/ |website=Neuroscience News |access-date=11 January 2023 |date=10 February 2016}}</ref> Adults usually have a higher capacity to select what they learn, to what extent and how. For example, children may learn [[Education#Development|the given subjects and topics of school curricula via classroom blackboard-transcription handwriting]], instead of being able to choose specific topics/skills or jobs to learn and the styles of learning. For instance, children may not have developed consolidated interests, ethics, interest in purpose and meaningful activities, knowledge about real-world requirements and demands, and priorities.