Editing Romanesque architecture (section)

==Ecclesiastical architecture==
{{See also|List of regional characteristics of Romanesque churches}}

===Plan===
Many parish churches, abbey churches and cathedrals are in the Romanesque style, or were originally built in the Romanesque style and have subsequently undergone changes.
The simplest Romanesque churches are aisleless halls with a projecting apse at the chancel end, or sometimes, particularly in England, a projecting rectangular chancel with a chancel arch that might be decorated with mouldings. More ambitious churches have aisles separated from the nave by arcades.

Abbey and cathedral churches generally follow the [[Latin Cross]] plan. In England, the extension eastward may be long, while in Italy it is often short or non-existent, the church being of T plan, sometimes with apses on the transept ends as well as to the east. In France the church of St Front, Périgueux, appears to have been modelled on [[St. Mark's Basilica, Venice]], or the Byzantine [[Church of the Holy Apostles]] and is of a [[Greek cross]] plan with five domes.<ref>Kimball, F., & Edgell, G. H. (1918). A History of Architecture. New York. Harper & Brothers. 621 pages (p. 252).</ref> In the same region, [[Angoulême Cathedral]] is an aisleless church of the Latin cross plan, more usual in France, but is also roofed with domes.<ref name=BF/><ref name=Toman/>
In Germany, Romanesque churches are often of distinctive form, having apses at both east and west ends, the main entrance being central to one side. It is probable that this form came about to accommodate a baptistery at the west end.<ref name=RH/>

NOTE: The plans below do not show the buildings in their current states.<ref>With the exception of the [[Plan of St. Gall]], which is from an ancient manuscript (and probably does not reflect an actual construction), they are all hypothetical reconstructions of groundplans as they existed in the 12th or 13th centuries. The Abbey Church of St. Gall has been replaced by a Baroque Church. Speyer has had its west front rebuilt twice, Ely Cathedral has lost the eastern arm, being replaced in the Gothic style, the central tower being replaced with the unique octagon and the northwest tower, never rebuilt. It has also gained a west porch. Santiago has had some substantial changes including a Baroque west front.</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="250px" widths="170px">
File:Dehio I 42 St Gallen.jpg|The [[Plan of St. Gall|plan of the Abbey of St Gall]], Switzerland
File:Dehio 48 Speyer.jpg|Germany, [[Speyer Cathedral]]
File:Plan.cathedrale.Autun.png|France, [[Autun Cathedral]]
File:Plan.cathedrale.Angouleme.png|France, [[Angoulême Cathedral]]
</gallery>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="250px" widths="170px">
File:ElyPlanDehio vertical.jpg|England, [[Ely Cathedral]]
File:Santiago de Compostela plan vertical.jpg|Spain, [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela]]
File:Plan-st-Sernin-Toulouse.png|France, [[Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse]]
File:San Isidoro Plan Vertical.JPG|Spain, [[San Isidoro de León]]
File:Modena cathedral vertical.JPG|Italy, [[Modena Cathedral]]
</gallery>

The [[Abbey of St. Gall|Abbey Church of St. Gall]], Switzerland, shows the plan that was to become common throughout Germanic Europe. It is a [[Latin Cross]] with a comparatively long nave and short transepts and eastern end, which is apsidal. The nave is aisled, but the chancel and transepts are not. It has an apsidal west end, which was to become a feature of Churches of Germany, such as [[Worms Cathedral]]. [[Speyer Cathedral]], Germany, also has aisleless transept and chancel. It has a markedly modular look. A typical Germanic characteristic is the presence of towers framing the chancel and the west end. There is marked emphasis on the western entrance, called ''Westwerk'', which is seen in several other churches. Each vault compartment covers two narrow bays of the nave.

At [[Autun Cathedral]], France, the pattern of the nave bays and aisles extends beyond the crossing and into the chancel, each aisle terminating in an apse. Each nave bay is separated at the vault by a transverse rib. Each transept projects to the width of two nave bays. The entrance has a narthex which screens the main portal. This type of entrance was to be elaborated in the Gothic period on the transepts at Chartres. [[Angoulême Cathedral]], France, is one of several instances in which the Byzantine churches of Constantinople seem to have been influential in the design in which the main spaces are roofed by domes. This structure has necessitated the use of very thick walls, and massive piers from which the domes spring. There are radiating chapels around the apse, which is a typically French feature and was to evolve into the [[chevet]].

As was typically the case in England, [[Ely Cathedral]] was a Benedictine monastery, serving both monastic and secular function. To facilitate this, the chancel or "presbytery" is longer than usually found in Europe, as are the aisled transepts which contained chapels. In England, emphasis was placed on the orientation of the chapels to the east. The very large piers at the crossing signify that there was once a tower. The western end having two round towers flanking a tall central tower was unique in Britain. Ely Cathedral was never vaulted and retains a wooden ceiling over the nave.

[[Santiago de Compostela Cathedral|The cathedral of Santiago de Compostela]] shares many features with Ely, but is typically Spanish in its expansive appearance. Santiago held the body of St. James and was the most significant pilgrimage site in Europe. The narthex, the aisles, the large aisled transepts and numerous projecting chapels reflect this. The chancel is short, compared to that of Ely, and the altar set so as to provide clear view to a vast congregation simultaneously.

[[Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse|The basilica Saint-Sernin of Toulouse]] is a typical example of a pilgrimage church. It is very large and its interior plan made it possible to direct traffic. With double side aisles and with an aisled transept and an ambulatory surrounding the apse, pilgrims could make the circuit around the church and were able to stop for meditation and prayer at the apsidal chapels of the transept and the radiating chapels of the choir.

[[Modena Cathedral]] shows a typically Italian Romanesque plan, often architecturally termed a "[[basilica]]", because of its similarity in plan to a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] basilicas.

===Section===
In section, the typical aisled church or cathedral has a nave with a single aisle on either side. The nave and aisles are separated by an arcade carried on piers or on columns. The roof of the aisle and the outer walls help to buttress the upper walls and vault of the nave, if present. Above the aisle roof are a row of windows known as the clerestory, which give light to the nave. During the Romanesque period there was a development from this two-stage elevation to a three-stage elevation in which there is a gallery, known as a ''[[triforium]]'', between the arcade and the clerestory. This varies from a simple blind arcade decorating the walls, to a narrow arcaded passage, to a fully developed second story with a row of windows lighting the gallery.<ref name=Toman/>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="250" widths="250">
File:Dehio I 56 Konstanz Section.jpg|This drawing is a reconstruction by Dehio of the appearance of the Romanesque [[Konstanz Cathedral]] before its alterations in the Gothic style. It has a typical elevation of nave and aisles with wooden panelled ceilings and an apsidal east end.
File:Kloster arnsburg zisterzienser klosterkirche aufriss langhaus dehio 1888.jpg|alt=This nave elevation of Arnsburg Abbey, Germany, shows the typical arrangement of the nave arcade, aisle, clerestory windows and ribbed vault|This nave elevation of [[Arnsburg Abbey]], Germany, shows the typical arrangement of the nave arcade, aisle, clerestory windows and ribbed vault.
File:PeterElevDetailDehio.jpg|Exterior elevation, [[Peterborough Cathedral]]
</gallery>

===Church and cathedral east ends===
The eastern end of a Romanesque church is almost always semi-circular, with either a high chancel surrounded by an ambulatory as in France, or a square end from which an apse projects as in Germany and Italy. Where square ends exist in English churches, they are probably influenced by [[Anglo-Saxon architecture|Anglo-Saxon]] churches. Peterborough and Norwich Cathedrals have retained round east ends in the French style. However, in France, simple churches without apses and with no decorative features were built by the [[Cistercians]] who also founded many houses in England, frequently in remote areas.<ref name=FHC>{{cite book |first=Frederick H. |last=Crossley |year=1962 |title=The English Abbey }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150" widths="220" caption="East ends">
File:PM 33251 P Lourosa.jpg|alt=Rural church of São Pedro de Lourosa, Portugal, built in the 10th century it has the simplest type of square-shape apsidal east end.|Rural church of São Pedro de Lourosa, Portugal, built in the 10th century. It has the simplest type of square-shape apsidal east end.
File:Xhignesse JPG02.jpg|The small church of Saint-Pierre Xhignesse, Belgium, already has a semi-circular termination at the same height as the choir and nave.
File:Romanesque church of Saint-Andreas Szprotawa, Poland.jpg|The small church of Saint-Andreas [[Szprotawa]], Poland, built in the 13th century has an apsidal east end projecting from a chancel.
File:Seu urgell.jpg|The [[Cathedral of Santa Maria d'Urgell]], Spain, has an apsidal east end projecting at a lower level to the choir and decorated with an arcade below the roofline. This form is usual in Italy and Germany.
File:Abbazia di Sant'Antimo J.JPG|alt=The Abbey of Sant'Antimo has a high apsidal end surrounded by an ambulatory and with small projecting apses|The [[Abbey of Sant'Antimo]] has a high apsidal end surrounded by an ambulatory and with small projecting apses.
File:F06.Nevers St.-Etienne.1066.JPG|alt=Saint-Étienne, Nevers, displays a round chancel with ambulatory, apsidal chapels and strongly projecting transepts|Saint-Étienne, Nevers, displays a round chancel with ambulatory, apsidal chapels and strongly projecting transepts.
</gallery>

===Church and cathedral façades and external decoration===
Romanesque church façades, generally to the west end of the building, are usually symmetrical, have a large central portal made significant by its mouldings or porch, and an arrangement of arched-topped windows. In Italy there is often a single central ocular or wheel window.<ref name=BF309/> The common decorative feature is arcading.<ref name=BF/>

Smaller churches often have a single tower that is usually placed to the western end in France or England, either centrally or to one side, while larger churches and cathedrals often have two.

In France, [[Abbaye-aux-Hommes|Saint-Étienne, Caen]], presents the model of a large French Romanesque façade. It is a symmetrical arrangement of nave flanked by two tall towers each with two buttresses of low flat profile that divide the façade into three vertical units. The lowest stage is marked by large doors, each set within an arch in each of the three vertical sections. The wider central section has two tiers of three identical windows, while in the outer sections there are two tiers of single windows, giving emphasis to the mass of the towers. The towers rise above the façade through three further tiers, the lowest of tall blind arcading, the next of arcading pierced by two narrow windows and the third of two large windows, divided into two lights by a colonnette.<ref name=NP/>

This façade can be seen as the foundation for many other buildings, including both French and English Gothic churches. While the form is typical of northern France, its various components were common to many Romanesque churches of the period across Europe. Similar façades are found in Portugal. In England, [[Southwell Cathedral]] has maintained this form, despite the insertion of a huge Gothic window between the towers. [[Lincoln Cathedral|Lincoln]] and [[Durham Cathedral|Durham]] must once have looked like this. In Germany, [[Limburg Cathedral]] has a rich variety of openings and arcades in horizontal storeys of varying heights.

The churches of [[San Zeno Maggiore, Verona]], and [[San Michele, Pavia]], present two types of façade that are typical of Italian Romanesque, that which reveals the architectural form of the building, and that which screens it. At San Zeno, the components of nave and aisles are made clear by the vertical shafts that rise to the level of the central gable and by the varying roof levels. At [[San Miniato al Monte]] the definition of the architectural parts is made even clearer by the [[polychrome]] marble, a feature of many Italian medieval façades, particularly in Tuscany.
At San Michele the vertical definition is present as at San Zeno, but the rooflines are screened behind a single large gable decorated with stepped arcading. At [[Santa Maria della Pieve]], [[Arezzo]], this screening is carried even further, as the roofline is horizontal and the arcading rises in many different levels while the colonettes that support them have a great diversity of decoration.<ref name=HG/><ref name=RH/>

In the [[Rhineland]] and Netherlands the Carolingian form of west end known as the [[westwerk]] prevailed. Towers and apse of the western end are often incorporated into a multi-storey structure that bears little structural or visual relationship to the building behind it. These westwerks take a great variety of forms as may be seen at [[Maria Laach Abbey]], [[Collegiate Church of Saint Gertrude, Nivelles|St Gertrude, Nivelles]], and [[Basilica of Saint Servatius|St Serviatius]], Maastricht.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="210" caption="Façades">
File:Coimbra BW 2018-10-06 14-33-51 stitch.jpg|The [[Old Cathedral of Coimbra]], Portugal, is fortress-like and battlemented. The two central openings are deeply recessed.
File:Arles kirche st trophime fassade sky.JPG|[[Church of St. Trophime]], [[Arles]], France. The ornamentation is focused on the porch and the carved Christ in Majesty on the tympanum, typical of French cathedrals.
File:Verona Zeno-cropped.JPG|alt=Church of San Zeno, Verona, Italy, The façade is neatly divided vertically and horizontally. The central wheel window and small porch with columns resting on crouching lions is typical of Italy.|Church of [[San Zeno, Verona]], Italy. The façade is neatly divided vertically and horizontally. The central [[rose window|wheel window]] and small porch with columns resting on crouching lions is typical of Italy.
File:Duomo di Pisa Front Facade 2009.jpg|[[Pisa Cathedral]], Italy. The entire building is faced with marble striped in white and grey. On the façade this pattern is overlaid with architectonic decoration of blind arcading below tiers of dwarf galleries. The three portals became increasingly common.
File:San Michele Maggiore, Pavia, veduta laterale della facciata.jpg|[[San Michele Maggiore, Pavia|San Michele Maggiore]], [[Pavia]], The façade has the form of a screen, higher than the central nave, with a blind arcade below its roofline. It is divided into three bays by [[compound pier]]s, has a variety of window openings, and horizontal bands of sculptural decoration. 
File:Empoli, collegiata, facciata del 1093 (parte bassa) e del 1736 (parte alta) 02.jpg|The [[Collegiate Church]], [[Empoli]], Italy, represents a screen façade. The polychrome marble decoration divides the façade into zones while giving little indication of the architectural form behind it.
File:Angouleme cathedral StPierre ac.JPG|[[Angoulême Cathedral]], France. The façade here, richly decorated with architectonic and sculptural forms, has much in common with that at Empoli in that it screens the form of the building behind it.
</gallery>

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Façades with towers" heights="210">
File:Mairie de caen 030 crop.JPG|Saint-Étienne, [[Abbaye aux Hommes]], Caen, France, 11th century, with its tall towers, three portals and neat definition of architectural forms became a model for the façades of many later cathedrals across Europe. <small>14th-century spires</small>
File:St. Mary's Minster , West End - geograph.org.uk - 948257.jpg|[[Southwell Cathedral]], England, 1120, follows the Norman model with pyramidal spires as were probably at Saint-Étienne. <small>The Perpendicular window and battlement are late Gothic.</small>
File:Se de Lisboa Frente adj sky.JPG|[[Lisbon Cathedral]], Portugal, 1147, has a similar form to the Old Cathedral of Coimbra <small>above</small> with the addition of two sturdy bell towers in the Norman manner and a wheel window.
File:Limburg Cathedral, West facade 20140917 1.jpg|[[Limburg Cathedral]], Germany. The façade, {{Circa|1200}}, with polychrome plaster, follows the paired-tower model found at several [[Rhineland]] churches. The rose window has [[plate tracery]] and the spires are Rhenish helms.
File:Maria Laach 02.jpg|The [[westwork]] of the [[Maria Laach Abbey]], Germany, 12th century, (porch 1225) is typical of Germany, a form that dates to [[Carolingian architecture]] with grouped towers of different plans and both "candle-snuffer" and Rhenish helm spires.
File:Parma Dom Fassade4 adjusted.JPG|[[Parma Cathedral]], Italy, 1178, has a screen façade ornamented with galleries. At the centre is an open porch surmounted by a ceremonial balcony. The tower, (Gothic 1284) is a separate structure as usual in Italy.
</gallery>

===Church towers===
Towers were an important feature of Romanesque churches and a great number of them are still standing. They take a variety of forms: square, circular and octagonal, and are positioned differently in relation to the church building in different countries. In northern France, two large towers, such as those at Caen, were to become an integral part of the façade of any large abbey or cathedral. In central and southern France this is more variable and large churches may have one tower or a central tower. Large churches of [[Romanesque architecture in Spain|Spain]] and [[Portuguese Romanesque architecture|Portugal]] usually have two towers.

Many abbeys of France, such as that at Cluny, had many towers of varied forms. This is also common in Germany, where the apses were sometimes framed with circular towers and the crossing surmounted by an octagonal tower as at [[Worms Cathedral]]. Large paired towers of square plan could also occur on the transept ends, such as those at [[Tournai Cathedral]] in Belgium. In Germany, where four towers frequently occur, they often have spires that may be four or eight sided, or the distinctive ''Rhenish helm'' shape seen on the cathedrals of [[Limburger Dom|Limburg]]<ref name=Toman/> or [[Speyer Cathedral|Speyer]].

In England, for large abbeys and cathedral buildings, three towers were favoured, with the central tower being the tallest. This was often not achieved, through the slow process of the building stages, and in many cases the upper parts of the tower were not completed until centuries later as at Durham and Lincoln. Large Norman towers exist at the cathedrals of Durham, [[Exeter Cathedral|Exeter]], [[Southwell Minster|Southwell]], [[Norwich Cathedral|Norwich]] and [[Tewkesbury Abbey]].<ref name=ACT/><ref name=FHC/> Such towers were often topped during the late medieval period with a [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] spire of wooden construction covered with lead, copper or [[roof shingle|shingles]]. In the case of Norwich Cathedral, the huge, ornate, 12th-century crossing-tower received a 15th-century masonry spire rising to a height of 320 feet and remaining to this day.

In Italy towers are almost always free standing and the position is often dictated by the landform of the site, rather than aesthetics. This is the case in nearly all Italian churches both large and small, except in Sicily where a number of churches were founded by the Norman rulers and are more French in appearance.<ref name=BF/>

As a general rule, large Romanesque towers are square with corner buttresses of low profile, rising without diminishing through the various stages. Towers are usually marked into clearly defined stages by horizontal courses. As the towers rise, the number and size of openings increases as can be seen on the right tower of the transept of [[Tournai Cathedral]] where two narrow slits in the fourth level from the top becomes a single window, then two windows, then three windows at the uppermost level. This sort of arrangement is particularly noticeable on the towers of Italian churches, which are usually built of brick and may have no other ornament. Two fine examples occur at [[Lucca]], at the church of [[Basilica di San Frediano|San Frediano]] and at the ''[[Lucca Cathedral|Duomo]]''. It is also seen in [[Romanesque architecture in Spain|Spain]].<ref name=BF/>

In Italy there are a number of large free-standing towers that are circular, the most famous of these being the [[Leaning Tower of Pisa]]. In other countries where circular towers occur, such as Germany, they are usually paired and often flank an apse. Circular towers are uncommon in England, but occur throughout the early medieval period in Ireland.

Polygonal towers were often used on crossings and occur in France, Germany, Italy and Spain such as that of the [[Old Cathedral, Salamanca]], which is covered by a dome supported on a ribbed vault.<ref name=Toman/>

Smaller churches sometimes had [[bell-gable]]s instead of towers, a feature which, according to some authors, is characteristic of the simplicity of much architecture in the Romanesque style.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elripolles.com/que-vols-fer/turisme-cultural/romanic/romanic-de-la-vall-de-camprodon/7.html |title=Romànic de la Vall de Camprodon |publisher=Elripolles.com |date=9 March 2010 |access-date=2011-06-11}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" caption="Towers" heights="240px">
File:San Frediano, Lucca, Italy - tower.JPG|The tower of the [[Basilica of San Frediano]], [[Lucca]], has openings that graduate in number, typical of Italian and Spanish Romanesque campanile. <small>(See pic. San Esteban, Segovia, below)</small>
File:Les tours de l'église abbatiale à Plankstetten en automne.JPG|Paired towers such as those of [[Plankstetten Abbey]], are a typical feature of [[Bavaria]]n and Central European church architecture. <small>(See image of Abbey Church of St James, Lébény, above)</small>
File:Abbaye de Cluny, 2010 crop.jpg|The [[octagon]]al crossing tower of the [[Cluny Abbey|Abbey church at Cluny]] influenced the building of other polygonal crossing towers in France, Spain and Germany. <small>(See pic. Maria Laach Abbey, above)</small>
File:Sunlit tower, Tewkesbury Abbey - geograph.org.uk - 1037432.jpg|The most massive Romanesque crossing tower is that at [[Tewkesbury Abbey]], in England, where large crossing towers are characteristic. <small>(See pic. St Alban's Cathedral, above)</small>
File:Pisa - Campo Santo - Campanile 1 - 2005-08-08 10-15 4638.JPG|The [[Leaning Tower of Pisa]] with its encircling arcades is the best known (and most richly decorated) of the many circular towers found in Italy.
</gallery>

===Portals===
Romanesque churches generally have a single portal centrally placed on the west front, the focus of decoration for the façade of the building. Some churches such as [[Abbaye aux Hommes|Saint-Étienne]], Caen, (11th century) and [[Pisa Cathedral]] (late 12th century) had three western portals, in the manner of [[Early Christian architecture|Early Christian]] basilicas. Many churches, both large and small, had lateral entrances that were commonly used by worshippers.

Romanesque doorways have a character form, with the jambs having a series of receding planes, into each of which is set a circular shaft, all surmounted by a continuous abacus. The semi-circular arch which rises from the abacus has the same series planes and circular mouldings as the jambs.<ref name=BF309>Banister Fletcher p. 309</ref> There are typically four planes containing three shafts, but there may be as many as twelve shafts, symbolic of the apostles.

The opening of the portal may be arched, or may be set with a lintel supporting a tympanum, generally carved, but in Italy sometimes decorated with mosaic or fresco. A carved tympanum generally constitutes the major sculptural work of a Romanesque church. The subject of the carving on a major portal may be Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgement. Lateral doors may include other subjects such as the [[Nativity in art|Birth of Christ]]. The portal may be protected by a porch, with simple open porches being typical of Italy, and more elaborate structures typical of France and Spain.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160" widths="210" caption="Portals">
File:Verona Italy San Zeno DSC08235.JPG|alt=San Zeno, Verona, has a porch typical of Italy. The square-topped doorway is surmounted by a mosaic. To either side are marble reliefs showing the Fall of Man and the Life of Christ|San Zeno, Verona, has a porch typical of Italy. The square-topped doorway is surmounted by a mosaic. To either side are marble reliefs showing the [[Fall of Man]] and the [[Life of Christ in art|Life of Christ]].
File:Lincoln cathedral Gallery of Kings.jpg|The mouldings of the arched central west door of [[Lincoln Cathedral]] are decorated by chevrons and other formal and figurative ornament typical of English Norman. <small>The "Gallery of Kings" above the portal is Gothic</small>
File:Arles,ancienne cathédrale St Trophime,portail roman1190.jpg|The Basilica of Saint-Trophime, Arles, France, has an elaborate sculptural scheme which includes Christ in Majesty, a frieze extending over the lintel and a gallery of sculptured figures.
File:SantiagoCompostela-PortaPlaterias-bis.jpg|The Porta de Praterías, [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela]], by Master Esteban, has two wide openings with tympanums supported on brackets. The sculptured frieze above is protected by an eave on corbels.
File:Portal moissac.jpg|alt=The portal of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, has unusual features including the frieze of roundels on the lintel, the scalloped jambs and figures of prophets on the central jamb|The portal of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, has unusual features including the frieze of roundels on the lintel, the scalloped jambs and figures of prophets on the central jamb.
</gallery>

===Interiors===
The structure of large churches differed regionally and developed across the centuries. The use of piers of rectangular plan to support arcades was common, as at Mainz Cathedral and St Gertrude Nivelle, and remained usual in smaller churches across Europe, with the arcades often taking the form of openings through the surface of a wall. In Italy, where there was a strong tradition of using marble columns, complete with capital, base and abacus, this remained prevalent, often reusing existent ancient columns, as at San Miniato al Monte. A number of 11th-century churches have naves distinguished by huge circular columns with no clerestory, or a very small one as at St Philibert, Tournus. In England stout columns of large diameter supported decorated arches, gallery and clerestory, as at the nave of Malmesbury Abbey (see "Piers and columns", above). By the early 12th century composite piers had evolved, in which the attached shafts swept upward to a ribbed vault or were continued into the mouldings of the arcade, as at Vézelay Abbey, Saint-Étienne, Caen, and Peterborough Cathedral.

The nature of the internal roofing varied greatly, from open timber roofs, and wooden ceilings of different types, which remained common in smaller churches, to simple barrel vaults and groin vaults and increasingly to the use of ribbed vaults in the late 11th and 12th centuries, which were to become a common feature of larger abbey churches and cathedrals. A number of Romanesque churches are roofed with a series of Domes. At [[Fontevrault Abbey]] the nave is covered by four domes, while at the Church of Saint Front, [[Périgueux]], the church is of [[Greek cross]] plan, with a central dome surrounded by four smaller domes over the nave, chancel and transepts.

Internal decoration varied across Europe. Where wide expanses of wall existed, they were often plastered and painted. Wooden ceilings and timber beams were decorated. In Italy walls were sometimes faced with polychrome marble. Where buildings were constructed of stone that was suitable for carving, many decorative details occur, including ornate capitals and mouldings.

The apsidal east end was often a focus of decoration, with both architectonic forms such as arcading and pictorial features such as carved figures, murals and occasionally mosaics. Stained glass came into increasing use from the 11th century. In many churches the eastern end has been rebuilt in a later style. Of England's Norman cathedrals, no eastern end remains unchanged. In France the eastern terminals of the important abbeys of Caen, Vézelay and, most significantly, the [[Basilica of St Denis]] were completely rebuilt in the Gothic style. In Germany, major reconstructions of the 19th century sought to return many Romanesque buildings to their original form. Examples of simple Romanesque apses can be seen in the images of St Gertrude, Nivelles; St Philibert, Tournus, and San Miniato al Monte.

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Interiors (see also sections illustrating columns and roofs)" heights="260px">
File:Nivelles JPG00 (13).jpg|St Gertrude, [[Nivelles]], Belgium, (consecrated 1046) has a nave and aisles divided by piers supporting a clerestorey. The nave is divided by transverse arches. The interior would have been plastered and painted.
File:San Miniato al Monte Florence Italy.jpg|[[San Miniato al Monte]], [[Florence]] (1013–1090) has basilical form, open timber roof and decoration of polychrome marble and mosaic. The decoration continued harmoniously until the apsidal mosaic of 1260.
File:Tournus 43 .jpg|The Church of [[St Philibert, Tournus]], (990–1019) has tall circular piers supporting the arcade and is roofed with a series of barrel vaults supported on arches. Small clerestory windows light the vault.
File:Vezelay-Basilique-Nef.JPG|[[Vézelay Abbey|Abbey of St Mary Magdalene]], Vézelay, (consecrated 1104) has clusters of vertical shafts rising to support transverse arches and a groin vault. The dressed polychrome stonework has exquisitely detailed mouldings. <small>East end is Gothic.</small>
File:Peterborough interior 01 adjusted.jpg|The nave of [[Peterborough Cathedral]] (1118–1193) in three stages of arcade, gallery & clerestory, typical of Norman abbey churches. The rare wooden ceiling retains its original decoration ({{Circa|1230}}). <small>Gothic arches beneath tower ({{Circa|1350}}).</small>
</gallery>

===Other structures===
Among the structures associated with church buildings are crypts, porches, chapter houses, cloisters and baptisteries.

'''[[Crypt]]s''' are often present as an underlying structure to a substantial church, and are generally a completely discrete space, but occasionally, as in some Italian churches, may be a sunken space under a raised chancel and open, via steps, to the body of the nave. Romanesque crypts have survived in many instances, such as [[Canterbury Cathedral]], when the church itself has been rebuilt.
The usual construction of a Romanesque crypt is with many short stout columns carrying groin vaults, as at [[Worcester Cathedral]].

'''[[Porch]]es''' sometimes occur as part of the original design of a façade. This is very much the case in Italy, where they are usually only one bay deep and are supported on two columns, often resting on couchant lions, as at St Zeno, Verona.<small>See above.</small> Elsewhere, porches of various dates have been added to the façade or side entrance of existent churches and may be quite a substantial structure, with several bays of vaulting supported on an open or partially open arcade, and forming a sort of narthex as at the Church of St Maria, Laach.<small>See above</small> In Spain, Romanesque churches often have large lateral porches, like loggias.

'''[[Chapter house]]s''' often occur adjacent to monastic or cathedral churches. Few have survived intact from the Romanesque period. Early chapter houses were rectangular in shape, with the larger ones sometimes having groin or ribbed vaults supported on columns. Later Romanesque chapter houses sometimes had an apsidal eastern end. The chapter house at Durham Cathedral is a wide space with a ribbed vault, restored as originally constructed in 1130. The circular chapter house at Worcester Cathedral, built by Bishop Wulfstan (1062–95), was the first circular chapter house in Europe and was much imitated in England.

'''[[Cloister]]s''' are generally part of any [[Romanesque secular and domestic architecture#Monastic buildings|monastic complex]] and also occur at cathedral and collegiate churches. They were essential to the communal way of life, a place for both working during daylight hours and relaxing during inclement weather. They usually abut the church building and are enclosed with windowless walls on the outside and an open arcade on the inside, looking over a courtyard or "cloister garth". They may be vaulted or have timber roofs. The arcades are often richly decorated and are home to some of the most fanciful carved capitals of the Romanesque period with those of [[Santo Domingo de Silos]] in Spain and the [[Moissac Abbey|Abbey of St Pierre]] Moissac, being examples. Many Romanesque cloisters have survived in Spain, France, Italy and Germany, along with some of their associated buildings.

'''[[Baptistery|Baptisteries]]''' often occur in Italy as a free standing structure, associated with a cathedral. They are generally octagonal or circular and domed. The interior may be arcaded on several levels as at [[Pisa Cathedral]]. Other notable Romanesque baptisteries are that at [[Parma Cathedral]] remarkable for its galleried exterior, and the polychrome [[Florence Baptistery|Baptistery of San Giovanni]] of Florence Cathedral, with vault mosaics of the 13th century including Christ in Majesty, possibly the work of the almost legendary [[Coppo di Marcovaldo]].

<gallery mode="packed" heights="240px">
File:Worcester cathedral 031 crop.JPG|The groin-vaulted crypt of [[Worcester Cathedral]]
File:Monasterio de la Oliva - Sala Capitular 01.jpg|The chapter house of [[Santa María de la Oliva]], [[Carcastillo]], Spain
File:SegoviaSEstebán2 22.4.2003.jpg|The lateral porch of the [[Tower of San Esteban|Church of San Esteban]], [[Segovia]]
File:Abbaye de Lavaudieu - Cloître - JPG1.jpg|The cloister of [[Lavaudieu|Lavaudieu Abbey]]
File:Battistero.jpg|The Baptistery of [[Parma Cathedral]]
</gallery>

===Decoration===

====Architectural embellishment====
Arcading is the single most significant decorative feature of Romanesque architecture. It occurs in a variety of forms, from the [[Lombard band]], which is a row of small arches that appear to support a roofline or course, to shallow blind arcading that is often a feature of English architecture and is seen in great variety at [[Ely Cathedral]], to the open dwarf gallery, first used at [[Speyer Cathedral]] and widely adopted in Italy as seen on both [[Pisa Cathedral]] and its famous [[Leaning Tower]]. Arcades could be used to great effect, both externally and internally, as exemplified by the church of Santa Maria della Pieve, in Arezzo.<ref name=RH/>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="130">
File:Iglesia de São Bento de Castro de Avelãs (5819068854).jpg|alt=Blind arcading in brick in the Mozarabic style of Asturia and Leon on the apse of Castro de Avelãs Monastery, a unique example in Portugal.|Blind arcading in brick in the [[Mozarabic architecture|Mozarabic style]] of [[Asturia]] and [[León (historical region)|Leon]] on the apse of [[Portuguese Romanesque architecture|Castro de Avelãs Monastery]], a unique example in Portugal
File:St Lawrence's church in Castle Rising - Norman west facade - geograph.org.uk - 1878796.jpg|Overlapping arches form a blind arcade at St Lawrence's church [[Castle Rising]], England. (1150) The semi-circular arches form pointed arches where they overlap, a motif which may have influenced Gothic.
File:San Juan de Rabanera-Soria - P7234547.jpg|alt=Flat striated pillars (one of which forms the axis of symmetry, separating two windows with semi-circular arches) and richly decorated blind windows in the apse of San Juan de Rabanera Church in Soria, Spain.|Flat striated pillars (one of which forms the axis of symmetry, separating two windows with semi-circular arches) and richly decorated blind windows in the apse of [[San Juan de Rabanera|San Juan de Rabanera Church]] in [[Soria]], Spain
File:2010.08.14.164600 Dom Speyer lighter.JPG|Dwarf galleries are a major decorative feature on the exterior of [[Speyer Cathedral]], Germany (1090–1106), surrounding the walls and encircling the towers. This was to become a feature of Rhenish Romanesque.
File:Duomo di parma, abside sx 01.JPG|alt=The eastern apse of Parma Cathedral, Italy (early 12th century) combines a diversity of decorative features: blind arcading, galleries, courses and sculptured motifs.|The eastern apse of [[Parma Cathedral]], Italy, early 12th century, combines a diversity of decorative features: blind arcading, galleries, courses and sculptured motifs.
File:Toscana Lucca5 tango7174 lighter.JPG|alt=The arcading on the façade of Lucca Cathedral, Tuscany (1204) has many variations in its decorative details, both sculptural and in the inlaid polychrome marble.|The arcading on the façade of [[Lucca Cathedral]], Tuscany (1204), has many variations in its decorative details, both sculptural and in the inlaid polychrome marble.
File:Monreale-bjs-17.jpg|alt=Polychrome blind arcading of the apse of Monreale Cathedral, Sicily (1174–82) The decoration indicates Islamic influence in both the motifs and the fact that all the arches, including those of the windows, are pointed.|Polychrome blind arcading of the apse of [[Monreale Cathedral]], Sicily (1174–82). The decoration indicates Islamic influence in both the motifs and the fact that all the arches, including those of the windows, are pointed.
</gallery>

====Architectural sculpture====
The Romanesque period produced a profusion of sculptural ornamentation. This most frequently took a purely geometric form and was particularly applied to mouldings, both straight courses and the curved moldings of arches. In La Madeleine, Vezelay, for example, the polychrome ribs of the vault are all edged with narrow filets of pierced stone. Similar decoration occurs around the arches of the nave and along the horizontal course separating arcade and clerestory. Combined with the pierced carving of the capitals, this gives a delicacy and refinement to the interior.<ref name=RH/>

In England, such decoration could be discrete, as at [[Hereford Cathedral|Hereford]] and Peterborough cathedrals, or have a sense of massive energy as at Durham where the diagonal ribs of the vaults are all outlined with [[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]]s, the mouldings of the nave arcade are carved with several layers of the same and the huge columns are deeply incised with a variety of geometric patterns creating an impression of directional movement. These features combine to create one of the richest and most dynamic interiors of the Romanesque period.<ref>Alec Clifton-Taylor says "With the Cathedral of Durham we reach the incomparable masterpiece of Romanesque architecture not only in England but anywhere."</ref>

Although much sculptural ornament was sometimes applied to the interiors of churches, the focus of such decoration was generally the west front, and in particular, the portals. Chevrons and other geometric ornaments, referred to by 19th-century writers as "barbaric ornament", are most frequently found on the mouldings of the central door. Stylized foliage often appears, sometimes deeply carved and curling outward after the manner of the acanthus leaves on [[Corinthian order|Corinthian capitals]], but also carved in shallow relief and spiral patterns, imitating the intricacies of manuscript illuminations. In general, the style of ornament was more classical in Italy, such as that seen around the door of [[San Giusto, Lucca|San Giusto]] in [[Lucca]], and more "barbaric" in England, Germany and Scandinavia, such as that seen at [[Lincoln Cathedral|Lincoln]] and [[Speyer Cathedral]]s. France produced a great range of ornament, with particularly fine interwoven and spiralling vines in the "manuscript" style occurring at [[Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse|Saint-Sernin]], Toulouse.<ref name=OME/><ref name=Toman/><ref name=RH/>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="130" widths="130">
File:Modillonsarthous2.JPG|alt=Detail of an apse of Abbey d'Arthous, Landes, France showing corbels representing aspects of sin such as lust, drunkenness and ignorance.|Detail of an apse of Abbey d'Arthous, Landes, France, showing corbels representing aspects of sin such as lust, drunkenness and ignorance
File:Avila - Ermita de San Segundo 3.jpg|The portal of the [[Ávila, Spain#Ermita de San Segundo|Hermitage of St Segundo, Avila]], has paired creatures. and decorative bands of floral and interlacing. The pairing of creatures could draw on Byzantine and Celtic models.
File:Aiguilhe - Chapelle St-Michel - JPG3.jpg|alt=The carving of the polychrome porch of the Saint-Michel-D'aiguilhe chapel, the Aiguilhe, Haute-Loire, France, (11th century), has paired mermaids, and the Lamb of God|The carving of the polychrome porch of the Saint-Michel-D'aiguilhe chapel, the [[Aiguilhe]], Haute-Loire, France, 11th century, has paired mermaids, and the [[Lamb of God]].
File:Lincoln cathedral 03 West portal.jpg|On these mouldings around the portal of [[Lincoln Cathedral]] are formal chevron ornament, tongue-poking monsters, vines and figures, and symmetrical motifs.
File:Eglise StMartin Gensac detail portail.JPG|St Martin's Church, [[Gensac-la-Pallue]] has capitals with elaborate interlacing.
</gallery>

====Figurative sculpture====
{{main|Romanesque art}}
The name of the architectural style was transferred onto the art of the period. [[Romanesque art]] provided fine examples of painting and sculpture, but, while the Romanesque churches were flush with colours, most large paintings were lost. The period brought a major revival of sculpture.{{sfn|Oxford University Press|2004}}

With the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of carving large works in stone and sculpting figures in bronze died out. The best-known surviving large sculptural work of Proto-Romanesque Europe is the life-size wooden Crucifix commissioned by [[Gero (Archbishop of Cologne)|Archbishop Gero of Cologne]] in about 960–65.<ref>See details at [[Cologne Cathedral]].</ref> During the 11th and 12th centuries, figurative sculpture flourished in a distinctly Romanesque style that can be recognised across Europe, although the most spectacular sculptural projects are concentrated in South-Western France, Northern Spain and Italy.

Major figurative decoration occurs particularly around the portals of cathedrals and churches, ornamenting the [[Tympanum (architecture)|tympanum]], lintels, jambs and central posts. The tympanum is typically decorated with the imagery of [[Christ in Majesty]] with the symbols of the [[Four Evangelists]], drawn directly from the gilt covers of medieval [[Gospel Book]]s. This style of doorway occurs in many places and continued into the Gothic period. A rare survival in England is that of the "Prior's Door" at [[Ely Cathedral]]. In France, many have survived, with impressive examples at the [[Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac]], the [[Abbey of Sainte-Marie, Souillac]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Howe |first=Jeffery |title=Romanesque Architecture (slides) |work=A digital archive of architecture |publisher=[[Boston College]] |url= http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/arch/souillac.html |access-date=2007-09-28}}</ref> and [[Abbey of la Madaleine, Vézelay]]&nbsp;– all daughter houses of Cluny, with extensive other sculpture remaining in cloisters and other buildings. Nearby, [[Autun Cathedral]] has a [[Last Judgement]] of great rarity in that it has uniquely been signed by its creator Giselbertus (who was perhaps the patron rather than the sculptor).<ref name=HG/><ref name=RH/> The same artist is thought to have worked at la Madeleine Vezelay which uniquely has two elaborately carved tympanum, the early inner one representing the Last Judgement and that on the outer portal of the narthex representing Jesus [[Great Commission|sending forth the Apostles]] to preach to the nations.

It is a feature of Romanesque art, both in manuscript illumination and sculptural decoration, that figures are contorted to fit the space that they occupy. Among the many examples that exist, one of the finest is the figure of the [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Prophet Jeremiah]] from the pillar of the portal of the [[Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac]], France, from about 1130.<ref name=RH/> A significant motif of Romanesque design is the spiral, a form applied to both plant motifs and drapery in Romanesque sculpture. An outstanding example of its use in drapery is that of the central figure of Christ on the outer portal at [[Vézelay Abbey|La Madaleine, Vezelay]].<ref name=RH/>

Many of the smaller sculptural works, particularly capitals, are Biblical in subject and include scenes of [[Genesis creation myth|Creation]] and the [[Adam and Eve|Fall of Man]], episodes from the life of Christ and those [[Old Testament]] scenes that [[Typology (theology)|prefigure]] his [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Death]] and [[Resurrection]], such as [[Jonah|Jonah and the Whale]] and [[Daniel in the lions' den]]. Many [[Nativity of Jesus in art|Nativity]] scenes occur, the theme of the [[Biblical Magi|Three Kings]] being particularly popular. The cloisters of [[Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey]] in Northern Spain, and [[Moissac]] are fine examples surviving complete.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
File:Tympan - Porte Miégeville - Basilique Saint-Sernin.jpg|The tympanum of the side entrance of [[Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse|Saint-Sernin of Toulouse]], ({{Circa|1115}}) shows the Ascension of Christ, surrounded by angels, in a simple composition of standing figures.
File:02 Basilique Ste-Marie-Madeleine de Vézelay - Tympan.jpg|The tympanum of the inner portal of la Madeleine Vezelay has the scene of Christ in Majesty, at the Last Judgement. The figure of Christ is highly formalised in both posture and treatment. (1130s)
File:Portail sud de l' Abbatiale Saint-Pierre de Moissac (3).JPG|alt=The tympanum of the Saint-Pierre, Moissac, is a highly sophisticated, tightly packed design, like a manuscript illumination. Christ is surrounded by the symbols of the Four Evangelists|The tympanum of the [[Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac|Saint-Pierre, Moissac]], is a highly sophisticated, tightly packed design, like a manuscript illumination. Christ is surrounded by the symbols of the [[Four Evangelists]].
File:Cathedrale Sainte-Marie Oloron portail avaleur.jpg|Details of the portal of [[Oloron Cathedral]] show a demon, a lion swallowing a man and kings with musical instruments.
File:Saint-Trophime 805.jpg|A relief from St Trophime, Arles, showing King Herod and the [[Biblical Magi|Three Kings]], follows the conventions in that the seated Herod is much larger than the standing figures.
File:ND-en-Vaux Chapiteau 4 adjusted.JPG|Notre-Dame-en-Vaux, [[Châlons-en-Champagne]]. This paired capital representing Christ washing the feet of the disciples is lively and naturalistic.
</gallery>

====Murals====
The large wall surfaces and plain curving vaults of the Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration. Many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by damp or the walls have been replastered and painted over. In most of Northern Europe such pictures were systematically destroyed in bouts of [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] [[iconoclasm]]. In other countries they have suffered from war, neglect and changing fashion.

A classic scheme for the full painted decoration of a church, derived from earlier examples often in [[mosaic]], had, as its focal point in the [[semi-dome]] of the apse, [[Christ in Majesty]] or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a [[mandorla]] and framed by the four winged beasts, symbols of the [[Four Evangelists]], comparing directly with examples from the gilt covers or the illuminations of [[Gospel Book]]s of the period. If the [[Virgin Mary]] was the dedicatee of the church, she might replace Christ here. On the apse walls below would be saints and apostles, perhaps including narrative scenes, for example of the saint to whom the church was dedicated. On the sanctuary arch were figures of apostles, prophets or the twenty-four "[[Elders of the Apocalypse]]", looking in towards a bust of Christ, or his symbol the Lamb, at the top of the arch. The north wall of the nave would contain narrative scenes from the Old Testament, and the south wall from the New Testament. On the rear west wall would be a [[Doom paintings|Doom painting]] or [[Last Judgement]], with an enthroned and judging Christ at the top.<ref>James Hall, ''A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art'', p. 154, 1983, John Murray, London, {{ISBN|0-7195-3971-4}}</ref>

One of the most intact schemes to exist is that at [[Abbey Church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe|Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]] in France. <small>(See picture above under "Vault")</small> The long barrel vault of the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco, and is decorated with scenes of the [[Old Testament]], showing the [[Genesis creation myth|Creation]], the [[Adam and Eve|Fall of Man]] and other stories including a lively depiction of [[Noah's Ark]] complete with a fearsome figurehead and numerous windows through with can be seen the Noah and his family on the upper deck, birds on the middle deck, while on the lower are the pairs of animals. Another scene shows with great vigour the swamping of Pharaoh's army by the Red Sea. The scheme extends to other parts of the church, with the martyrdom of the local saints shown in the crypt, and [[Apocalypse]] in the narthex and Christ in Majesty. The range of colours employed is limited to light blue-green, yellow ochre, reddish brown and black. Similar paintings exist in Serbia, Spain, Germany, Italy and elsewhere in France.<ref name=Toman/>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="130">
File:Leon (San Isidoro, panteón).jpg|alt=The painted crypt of San Isidoro in León, Spain has a detailed scheme illustrating Biblical stories.|The painted crypt of [[Basilica of San Isidoro|San Isidoro]] in [[León, Spain]], has a detailed scheme illustrating Biblical stories.
File:Segovia - San Justo 22 adjust.JPG|Apse of the Church of St Justus, Segovia. ''Christ in Majesty'' was a common theme for the apse.
File:Absis de Sant Pere del Burgal, 11th c. fresco crop.JPG|alt=A frieze of figures occupies the zone below the semi-dome in the apse. Abbey of St Pere of Burgal, Catalonia, Spain|A frieze of figures occupies the zone below the semi-dome in the apse. [[Paintings from El Burgal|Abbey of St Pere of Burgal]], Catalonia, Spain.
File:12th-century paintings of Last Judgement (Clayton Church, Sussex).jpg|alt=In England the major pictorial theme occurs above the chancel arch in parish churches. St John the Baptist, Clayton, Sussex|In England the major pictorial theme occurs above the chancel arch in parish churches. [[Clayton, West Sussex#Parish church|St John the Baptist, Clayton, Sussex]].
File:Galenoghippokrates.jpg|alt=This fresco showing Galen and Hippocrates is part of a complex scheme decorating the crypt of Anagni Cathedral, Italy|This fresco showing [[Galen]] and [[Hippocrates]] is part of a complex scheme decorating the crypt of [[Anagni#Cathedral|Anagni Cathedral]], Italy.
</gallery>

====Stained glass====
{{further|Medieval stained glass}}
The oldest-known fragments of medieval pictorial [[stained glass]] appear to date from the 10th century. The earliest intact figures are five prophet windows at Augsburg, dating from the late 11th century. The figures, though stiff and formalised, demonstrate considerable proficiency in design, both pictorially and in the functional use of the glass, indicating that their maker was well accustomed to the medium. At Canterbury and Chartres Cathedrals, a number of panels of the 12th century have survived, including, at Canterbury, a figure of Adam digging, and another of his son Seth from a series of [[Ancestors of Christ]]. Adam represents a highly naturalistic and lively portrayal, while in the figure of Seth, the robes have been used to great decorative effect, similar to the best stone carving of the period.

Many of the magnificent [[Medieval stained glass|stained glass windows]] of France, including the famous windows of Chartres, date from the 13th century. Far fewer large windows remain intact from the 12th century. One such is the Crucifixion of Poitiers, a remarkable composition that rises through three stages, the lowest with a quatrefoil depicting the Martyrdom of St Peter, the largest central stage dominated by the crucifixion and the upper stage showing the [[Ascension of Christ]] in a mandorla. The figure of the crucified Christ is already showing the Gothic curve. The window is described by George Seddon as being of "unforgettable beauty".<ref name=GS>George Seddon in Lee, Seddon and Stephens, ''Stained Glass''</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="300" perrow="1" caption="Stained glass from Germany, England and France. Note: the scale of the first three windows is similar.">
File:King David in Augsburg Cathedral light.JPG|King David from [[Augsburg Cathedral]], late 11th century. One of a series of prophets that are the oldest stained glass windows in situ.
File:Canterbury, Canterbury cathedral-stained glass 03 Seth and Adam.JPG|alt=Two panels of lively figures, Seth and Adam from the 12th-century Ancestors of Christ, Canterbury Cathedral, now set into a Perpendicular Gothic window with panels of many different dates.|Two panels of lively figures, Seth and Adam from the 12th-century [[Ancestors of Christ]], Canterbury Cathedral, now set into a Perpendicular Gothic window with panels of many different dates
File:Bas-côté nord, baie VI Otto II Rex (dernier tiers XIIe).jpg|alt=Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor, from a series of Emperors (12th and 13th centuries) The panels are now set into Gothic windows, Strasbourg Cathedral|[[Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor]], from a series of Emperors (12th and 13th centuries). The panels are now set into Gothic windows, [[Strasbourg Cathedral]].
File:David et Salomon, vitrail roman, Cathédrale de Strasbourg.jpg|alt=Detail of a small panel showing Kings David and Solomon set in an architectonic frame from a large window at Strasbourg. Late 12th century. The alternation of red and blue is a typical device of simpler window designs. It is approximately 1/3 the height, and is much less complex in execution than the Emperor series of which Otto II is a part.See left|Detail of a small panel showing Kings David and Solomon set in an architectonic frame from a large window at Strasbourg. Late 12th century. The alternation of red and blue is a typical device of simpler window designs. It is approximately 1/3 the height, and is much less complex in execution than the Emperor series of which Otto II is a part. <small>See left</small>
File:Poitiers, Cathédrale Saint-Pierre -PM 34985 lighter.JPG|alt=A rare and remarkable survival, of "unforgettable beauty", the very large Crucifixion window of Poitiers Cathedral, France.|A rare and remarkable survival, of "unforgettable beauty",<ref name= GS /> the very large Crucifixion window of [[Poitiers Cathedral]], France
</gallery>

===Transitional style and the continued use of Romanesque forms===
During the 12th century, features that were to become typical of [[Gothic architecture]] began to appear. It is not uncommon, for example, for a part of building that has been constructed over a lengthy period extending into the 12th century, to have very similar arcading of both semi-circular and pointed shape, or windows that are identical in height and width, but in which the later ones are pointed. This can be seen on the towers of [[Tournai Cathedral]] and on the western towers and façade at [[Ely Cathedral]].<ref name=ACT/><ref name=WS/> Other variations that appear to hover between Romanesque and Gothic occur, such as the façade designed by [[Abbot Suger]] at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, which retains much that is Romanesque in its appearance, and the façade of [[Laon Cathedral]], which, despite its Gothic form, has round arches.<ref name=WS>Wim Swaan, ''Gothic Cathedrals''</ref>

Abbot Suger's innovative choir of the [[Abbey of Saint-Denis]], 1140–44, led to the adoption of the Gothic style by Paris and its surrounding area, but other parts of France were slower to take it up, and provincial churches continued to be built in the heavy manner and rubble stone of the Romanesque, even when the openings were treated with the fashionable pointed arch.

In England, the Romanesque groundplan, which in that country commonly had a very long nave, continued to affect the style of building of cathedrals and those large abbey churches which were also to become cathedrals at the [[dissolution of the monasteries]] in the 16th century. Despite the fact that English cathedrals were built or rebuilt in many stages, substantial areas of Norman building can be seen in many of them, particularly in the nave arcades. In the case of [[Winchester Cathedral]], the Gothic arches were literally carved out of the existent Norman piers.<ref name=ACT/> Other cathedrals have sections of their building which are clearly an intermediate stage between Norman and Gothic, such as the western towers of Ely Cathedral and part of the nave at [[Worcester Cathedral]]. The first truly Gothic building in England is the long eastern end of [[Canterbury Cathedral]] commenced in 1175.<ref name=ACT/>

In Italy, although many churches such as [[Florence Cathedral]] and [[Santa Maria Novella]] were built in the Gothic style, or utilising the pointed arch and window tracery, Romanesque features derived from the Roman architectural heritage, such as sturdy columns with capitals of a modified Corinthian form, continued to be used. The pointed vault was utilised where convenient, but it is commonly interspersed with semicircular arches and vaults wherever they conveniently fit. The façades of Gothic churches in Italy are not always easily distinguishable from the Romanesque.

Germany was not quick to adopt the Gothic style, and when it did so in the 1230s, the buildings were often modelled very directly upon French cathedrals, as [[Cologne Cathedral]] was modelled on Amiens. The smaller churches and abbeys continued to be constructed in a more provincial Romanesque manner, the date only being registered by the pointed window openings.<ref name=RH/>

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Churches showing the transition between Romanesque and Gothic" heights="220px">
File:2-Cathédrale de Laon.JPG|The façade of [[Laon Cathedral]], 1225, a Gothic cathedral, maintains rounded arches and arcading in the Romanesque manner.
File:Ely Cathedral 3.jpg|[[Ely Cathedral]], England, the central western tower and framing smaller towers all had transitional features, 1180s. The tower to the left fell. <small>Gothic porch, 1250s; lantern, 1390s.</small>
File:Cattedrale di San Lorenzo Genoa.jpg|The façade of the [[Cathedral of Genoa]] has both round and pointed arches, and paired windows, a continuing Romanesque feature of Italian Gothic architecture.
</gallery>