Editing Atomic force microscopy (section)

==Other applications in various fields of study==
[[File:GolgiAFMc.jpg|thumb|AFM image of part of a [[Golgi apparatus]] isolated from [[HeLa]] cells]]
The latest efforts in integrating [[nanotechnology]] and biological research have been successful and show much promise for the future, including in fields such as [[nanobiomechanics]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Septiadi|first1=Dedy|last2=Crippa|first2=Federica|last3=Moore|first3=Thomas Lee|last4=Rothen-Rutishauser|first4=Barbara|last5=Petri-Fink|first5=Alke|date=2018|title=Nanoparticle–Cell Interaction: A Cell Mechanics Perspective|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/adma.201704463|journal=Advanced Materials|language=en|volume=30|issue=19|pages=1704463|doi=10.1002/adma.201704463|pmid=29315860 |bibcode=2018AdM....3004463S |s2cid=19066377 |issn=1521-4095|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Since [[nanoparticle]]s are a potential vehicle of drug delivery, the biological responses of cells to these nanoparticles are continuously being explored to optimize their efficacy and how their design could be improved.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jong|first1=Wim H De|last2=Borm|first2=Paul JA|title=Drug Delivery and Nanoparticles: Applications and Hazards|journal= International Journal of Nanomedicine|volume=3|issue=2|date=June 2008|pages=133–149 |pmid=18686775|pmc=2527668|doi=10.2147/ijn.s596 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Pyrgiotakis et al. were able to study the interaction between CeO<sub>2</sub> and Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> engineered nanoparticles and cells by attaching the engineered nanoparticles to the AFM tip.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pyrgiotakis|first1=Georgios|last2=Blattmann|first2=Christoph O.|last3=Demokritou|first3=Philip|title=Real-Time Nanoparticle-Cell Interactions in Physiological Media by Atomic Force Microscopy|journal=ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering|volume=2|date=10 June 2014|issue=Sustainable Nanotechnology 2013|pages=1681–1690|pmc=4105194|pmid=25068097|doi=10.1021/sc500152g}}</ref> Studies have taken advantage of AFM to obtain further information on the behavior of live cells in biological media. Real-time atomic force spectroscopy (or nanoscopy) and dynamic atomic force spectroscopy have been used to study live cells and membrane proteins and their dynamic behavior at high resolution, on the nanoscale. Imaging and obtaining information on the topography and the properties of the cells has also given insight into chemical processes and mechanisms that occur through cell-cell interaction and interactions with other signaling molecules (ex. ligands). Evans and Calderwood used single cell force microscopy to study [[cell adhesion]] forces, bond kinetics/dynamic bond strength and its role in chemical processes such as cell signaling.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Evans|first1=Evan A.|last2=Calderwood|first2=David A.|s2cid=15109093|title=Forces and Bond Dynamics in Cell Adhesion|journal=Science|date=25 May 2007|volume=316|issue=5828|pages=1148–1153|doi=10.1126/science.1137592|pmid=17525329|bibcode = 2007Sci...316.1148E }}</ref> 
Scheuring, Lévy, and Rigaud reviewed studies in which AFM to explore the crystal structure of membrane proteins of photosynthetic bacteria.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Scheuring|first1=Simon|last2=Lévy|first2=Daniel|last3=Rigaud|first3=Jean-Louis|title=Watching the Components|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes|date=1 July 2005|volume=1712|issue=2|pages=109–127|doi=10.1016/j.bbamem.2005.04.005|pmid=15919049|doi-access=}}</ref>
Alsteen et al. have used AFM-based nanoscopy to perform a real-time analysis of the interaction between live [[mycobacteria]] and antimycobacterial drugs (specifically [[isoniazid]], [[ethionamide]], [[ethambutol]], and [[streptomycine]]),<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Alsteens|first1=David|last2=Verbelen|first2=Claire|last3=Dague|first3=Etienne|last4=Raze|first4=Dominique|last5=Baulard|first5=Alain R.|last6=Dufrêne|first6=Yves F.|title=Organization of the Mycobacterial Cell Wall: A Nanoscale View|journal=Pflügers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology|date=April 2008|volume=456|issue=1|pages=117–125|doi=10.1007/s00424-007-0386-0|pmid=18043940|doi-access=free}}</ref> which serves as an example of the more in-depth analysis of pathogen-drug interactions that can be done through AFM.