Editing 4-Hydroxynonenal (section)

==Pathology==
These compounds can be produced in cells and tissues of living organisms or in foods during processing or storage,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Guillén | first1 = M. A. D. | last2 = Cabo | first2 = N. | last3 = Ibargoitia | first3 = M. A. L. | last4 = Ruiz | first4 = A. | title = Study of both Sunflower Oil and Its Headspace throughout the Oxidation Process. Occurrence in the Headspace of Toxic Oxygenated Aldehydes | doi = 10.1021/jf0489062 | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 1093–1101 | year = 2005 | pmid =  15713025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Zanardi | first1 = E. | last2 = Jagersma | first2 = C. G. | last3 = Ghidini | first3 = S. | last4 = Chizzolini | first4 = R. | title = Solid Phase Extraction and Liquid Chromatography−Tandem Mass Spectrometry for the Evaluation of 4-Hydroxy-2-nonenal in Pork Products | doi = 10.1021/jf020201h | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 50 | issue = 19 | pages = 5268–5272 | year = 2002 | pmid =  12207460}}</ref> and from these latter can be absorbed through the [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]. Since 1991, OαβUAs are receiving a great deal of attention because they are being considered as possible causal agents of numerous diseases, such as chronic [[inflammation]], [[neurodegenerative disease]]s, adult [[Acute respiratory distress syndrome|respiratory distress syndrome]], [[atherogenesis]], [[diabetes]] and different types of [[cancer]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Zarkovic | first1 = N. | title = 4-Hydroxynonenal as a bioactive marker of pathophysiological processes | doi = 10.1016/S0098-2997(03)00023-2 | journal = Molecular Aspects of Medicine | volume = 24 | issue = 4–5 | pages = 281–291 | year = 2003 | pmid =  12893006}}</ref>

There seems to be a dual and hormetic action of 4-HNE on the health of cells:  lower intracellular concentrations (around 0.1-5 [[micromolar]]) seem to be beneficial to cells, promoting proliferation, differentiation, antioxidant defense and compensatory mechanism,  while higher concentrations (around 10-20 micromolar) have been shown to trigger well-known toxic pathways such as the induction of [[caspase]] enzymes, the laddering of genomic DNA, the release of [[cytochrome c]] from mitochondria, with the eventual outcome of cell death (through both [[apoptosis]] and [[necrosis]], depending on concentration){{Citation needed|date=August 2017}}. HNE has been linked to the pathology of several diseases such as [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[cataract]], [[atherosclerosis]], [[diabetes]] and [[cancer]].<ref>{{Cite journal 
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The increasing trend to enrich foods with polyunsaturated [[acyl]] groups entails the potential risk of enriching the food with some OαβUAs at the same time, as has already been detected in some studies carried out in 2007.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Surh | first1 = J. | last2 = Lee | first2 = S. | last3 = Kwon | first3 = H. | doi = 10.1080/02652030701422465 | title = 4-Hydroxy-2-alkenals in polyunsaturated fatty acids-fortified infant formulas and other commercial food products | journal = Food Additives & Contaminants | volume = 24 | issue = 11 | pages = 1209–18 | year = 2007 | pmid =  17852396| s2cid = 9185110 }}</ref> PUFA-fortified foods available on the market have been increasing since [[epidemiological]] and clinical researches have revealed possible effects of PUFA on [[brain]] development and curative and/or preventive effects on [[cardiovascular disease]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Martinat M, Rossitto M, Di Miceli M, Layé S |title=Perinatal Dietary Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Brain Development, Role in Neurodevelopmental Disorders |journal=Nutrients |volume=13 |issue=4 |date=April 2021 |page=1185 |pmid=33918517 |pmc=8065891 |doi=10.3390/nu13041185 |doi-access=free |url=}}</ref><ref name="n6">{{cite journal | vauthors = Willett WC | title = The role of dietary n-6 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular disease | journal = Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine | volume = 8 | issue =  Suppl 1| pages = S42-5 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17876199 | doi = 10.2459/01.JCM.0000289275.72556.13 | s2cid = 1420490 }}</ref> However, PUFA are very labile and easily oxidizable, thus the maximum beneficial effects of PUFA supplements may not be obtained if they contain significant amounts of toxic OαβUAs, which as commented on above, are being considered as possible causal agents of numerous diseases.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oFjBBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167|title=Molecular Basis of Nutrition and Aging: A Volume in the Molecular Nutrition Series|first1=Marco|last1=Malavolta|first2=Eugenio|last2=Mocchegiani|date=15 April 2016|publisher=Academic Press|access-date=18 April 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9780128018279}}</ref>

Special attention must also be paid to [[cooking oil]]s used repeatedly in catering and households because in those processes very high amounts of OαβUAs are generated and they can be easily absorbed through the diet.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Seppanen | first1 = C. M. | last2 = Csallany | first2 = A. S. | doi = 10.1007/s11746-006-1184-0 | title = The effect of intermittent and continuous heating of soybean oil at frying temperature on the formation of 4-hydroxy-2-trans-nonenal and other α-, β-unsaturated hydroxyaldehydes | journal = Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society | volume = 83 | issue = 2 | pages = 121 | year = 2006 | s2cid = 85213700 }}</ref>