Editing Adaptive management (section)

==History==
The use of adaptive management techniques can be traced back to peoples from ancient civilisations. For example, the [[Yap]] people of Micronesia have been using adaptive management techniques to sustain high [[population density|population densities]] in the face of resource scarcity for thousands of years (Falanruw 1984). In using these techniques, the Yap people have altered their environment creating, for example, coastal [[mangrove]] depressions and [[seagrass meadow]]s to support fishing and termite resistant wood (Stankey and Shinder 1997).

The origin of the adaptive management concept can be traced back to ideas of [[scientific management]] pioneered by [[Frederick Winslow Taylor|Frederick Taylor]] in the early 1900s (Haber 1964). While the term "adaptive management" evolved in natural resource management workshops through decision makers, managers and scientists focussing on building simulation models to uncover key assumptions and uncertainties (Bormann ''et al.'' 1999)<!-- ### This sentence is incomplete. Managagers and sci. did what? -->

Two ecologists at The [[University of British Columbia]], [[C. S. Holling|C.S. Holling]]<ref name=":0" /> and C.J Walters<ref name=":1" /> further developed the adaptive management approach as they distinguished between passive and active adaptive management practice. [[Kai Lee]], notable Princeton physicist, expanded upon the approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s while pursuing a post-doctorate degree at UC [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]. The approach was further developed at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], while C.S. Holling was director of the institute. In 1992, Hilbourne described three learning models for federal land managers, around which adaptive management approaches could be developed, these are reactive, passive and active.

Adaptive management has probably been most frequently applied in Yap, [[Australia]] and [[North America]], initially applied in [[fishery]] management, but received more broad application in the 1990s and 2000s. One of the most successful applications of adaptive management has been in the area of waterfowl harvest management in North America, most notably for the [[mallard]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nichols|first1=James D.|last2=Johnson|first2=Fred A.|last3=Williams|first3=Byron K.|last4=Boomer|first4=G. Scott|date=2015-06-01|title=On formally integrating science and policy: walking the walk|journal=Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=52|issue=3|pages=539–543|doi=10.1111/1365-2664.12406|issn=1365-2664|doi-access=|bibcode=2015JApEc..52..539N }}</ref>

Adaptive management in a conservation project and program context can trace its roots back to at least the early 1990s, with the establishment of the Biodiversity Support Program (BSP)<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/index.html Biodiversity Support Program]</ref> in 1989. BSP was a [https://web.archive.org/web/20000815070243/http://www.usaid.gov/ USAID]-funded consortium of WWF<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ WWF]</ref> The Nature Conservancy (TNC),<ref>[http://www.tnc.org/ The Nature Conservancy]</ref> and World Resources Institute (WRI).<ref>[http://www.wri.org/ World Resources Institute]</ref> Its Analysis and Adaptive Management Program sought to understand the conditions under which certain conservation strategies were most effective and to identify lessons learned across conservation projects. When BSP ended in 2001, TNC and Foundations of Success<ref>[http://www.fosonline.org/ Foundations of Success]</ref> (FOS, a non-profit which grew out of BSP) continued to actively work in promoting adaptive management for conservation projects and programs. The approaches used included Conservation by Design<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20070828100203/http://conserveonline.org/workspaces/cbdgateway/ Conservation by Design]}}</ref> (TNC) and Measures of Success<ref>[http://www.islandpress.org/ip/books/book/islandpress/M/bo3559851.html Measures of Success]</ref> (FOS).

In 2004, the Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP)<ref>[http://www.conservationmeasures.org/ Conservation Measures Partnership]</ref> – which includes several former BSP members – developed a common set of standards and guidelines<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.conservationmeasures.org/initiatives/standards-for-project-management/ | title=Home | access-date=2011-08-17 | archive-date=2011-08-27 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827101834/http://www.conservationmeasures.org/initiatives/standards-for-project-management | url-status=dead }}</ref> for applying adaptive management to conservation projects and programs.