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=== Alphabets related to Phoenician === ==== Ancient Near Eastern alphabets ==== The [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Ancient Egyptian writing system]] had a set of some [[Egyptian uniliteral signs|24 hieroglyphs]] that are called uniliterals,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gnomon |date=2004-04-08 |editor-last=Lynn |editor-first=Bernadette |title=The Development of the Western Alphabet |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2451890 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209231814/https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2451890 |archive-date=Dec 9, 2008 |access-date=2008-08-04 |work=BBC}}</ref> which are glyphs that provide one sound.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uniliteral Signs |url=https://www.bibalex.org/learnhieroglyphs/lesson/LessonDetails_En.aspx?l=54#:~:text=Uniliteral%20signs%20are%20the%20most,They%20represent%20a%20single%20sound |access-date=2023-01-24 |website=Learn Hieroglyphs |publisher=Bibliotheca Alexandrina}}</ref> These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for [[logogram]]s, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.<ref name="Daniels">{{Harvnb|Daniels|Bright|1996|pp=74–75}}</ref> The script was used a fair amount in the 4th century AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=James P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lF78Max-h8MC&pg=PA8 |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-139-48635-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> However, after pagan temples were closed down, it was forgotten in the 5th century until the discovery of the [[Rosetta Stone]].<ref name="Houston-2003">{{cite journal |last1=Houston |first1=Stephen |last2=Baines |first2=John |last3=Cooper |first3=Jerrold |title=Last Writing: Script Obsolescence in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Mesoamerica |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |date=2003 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=430–479 |doi=10.1017/S0010417503000227 |doi-broken-date=13 November 2024 |id={{ProQuest|212670035}} |jstor=3879458 }}</ref> There was also [[cuneiform]], primarily used to write several ancient languages, including [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bram |first=Jagersma |title=A Descriptive Grammar of Sumerian |publisher=Universiteit Leiden |year=2010 |page=15}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> The last known use of cuneiform was in 75 AD, after which the script fell out of use.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Westenholz |first1=Aage |title=The Graeco-Babyloniaca Once Again |journal=Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie |date=19 January 2007 |volume=97 |issue=2 |doi=10.1515/ZA.2007.014 }}</ref> In the [[Middle Bronze Age]], an apparently alphabetic system known as the [[Proto-Sinaitic script]] appeared in Egyptian turquoise mines in the [[Sinai Peninsula]] {{circa|1840 BC|lk=no}}, apparently left by Canaanite workers. [[Orly Goldwasser]] has connected the illiterate turquoise miner graffiti theory to the origin of the alphabet.<ref name="Goldwasser-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Goldwasser |first1=Orly |title=The Miners Who Invented the Alphabet – A Response to Christopher Rollston |journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections |date=12 September 2012 |volume=4 |issue=3 |doi=10.2458/azu_jaei_v04i3_goldwasser |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1999, American Egyptologists [[John Coleman Darnell|John]] and [[Deborah Darnell]] discovered an earlier version of this first alphabet at the [[Wadi el-Hol]] valley. The script dated to {{circa|1800 BC|lk=no}} and shows evidence of having been adapted from specific forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be dated to {{circa|2000 BC|lk=no}}, strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had developed about that time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Darnell |first1=John Coleman |author-link=John Coleman Darnell |last2=Dobbs-Allsopp |first2=F. W. |author-link2=F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp |last3=Lundberg |first3=Marilyn J. |last4=McCarter |first4=P. Kyle |author-link4=P. Kyle McCarter |last5=Zuckerman |first5=Bruce |last6=Manassa |first6=Colleen |author-link6=Colleen Darnell |year=2005 |title=Two Early Alphabetic Inscriptions from the Wadi el-Ḥôl: New Evidence for the Origin of the Alphabet from the Western Desert of Egypt |journal=The Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=59 |pages=63, 65, 67–71, 73–113, 115–124 |jstor=3768583}}</ref> The script was based on letter appearances and names, believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs.<ref name="Coulmas 140">{{Harvnb|Coulmas|1989|pp=140–141}}</ref> This script had no characters representing vowels. Originally, it probably was a syllabary—a script where syllables are represented with characters—with symbols that were not needed being removed. The best-attested Bronze Age alphabet is [[Ugaritic alphabet|Ugaritic]], invented in [[Ugarit]] before the 15th century BC. This was an alphabetic [[cuneiform]] script with 30 signs, including three that indicate the following vowel. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit in 1178 BC.<ref>''Ugaritic Writing'' [http://www.mazzaroth.com/ChapterThree/UgariticWriting.htm online]</ref> [[File:Ba`alat.png|thumb|left|A specimen of the [[Proto-Sinaitic script]], one of the earliest phonemic scripts]] The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, conventionally called [[Proto-Canaanite alphabet|Proto-Canaanite]], before {{circa|1050 BC|lk=no}}.<ref name="Daniels 9296" /> The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King [[Ahiram]] {{circa|1000 BC}}. This script is the parent script of all western alphabets. By the 10th century BC, two other forms distinguish themselves, [[Canaanite alphabet|Canaanite]] and [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]]. The Aramaic gave rise to the [[Hebrew alphabet]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Coulmas|1989|p=142}}</ref> The [[South Arabian alphabet]], a sister script to the Phoenician alphabet, is the script from which the [[Geʽez script]] was descended. Abugidas are writing systems with characters comprising consonant–vowel sequences. Alphabets without obligatory vowels are called ''[[abjad]]s'', with examples being Arabic, Hebrew, and [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]]. The omission of vowels was not always a satisfactory solution due to the need of preserving sacred texts. "Weak" consonants are used to indicate vowels. These letters have a dual function since they can also be used as pure consonants.<ref>{{Harvnb|Coulmas|1989|p=147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Matres lectionis |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/matres-lectionis |access-date=2023-01-20}}</ref> The Proto-Sinaitic script and the Ugaritic script were the first scripts with a limited number of signs instead of using many different signs for words, in contrast to cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and [[Linear B]]. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script,<ref name="Coulmas 140" /><ref name="Daniels 9296" /> and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for traders to learn. Another advantage of the Phoenician alphabet was that it could write different languages since it recorded words phonemically.{{sfn|Hock|Joseph|2009|p=85}} The Phoenician script was spread across the Mediterranean by the Phoenicians.<ref name="Daniels 9296" /> The Greek alphabet was the first in which vowels had independent letterforms separate from those of consonants. The Greeks chose letters representing sounds that did not exist in Greek to represent vowels. The [[Linear B]] syllabary, used by [[Mycenaean Greeks]] from the 16th century BC, had 87 symbols, including five vowels. In its early years, there were many variants of the Greek alphabet, causing many different alphabets to evolve from it.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ventris |first1=Micheal |title=Documents in Mycenaean Greek: Three Hundred Selected Tablets from Knossos, Pylos and Mycenae with Commentary and Vocabulary |last2=Chadwick |first2=John |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-107-50341-0 |edition=Repr. |page=60}}</ref> ==== European alphabets ==== The Greek alphabet, in [[Euboean alphabet|Euboean form]], was carried over by Greek colonists to the Italian peninsula {{Circa|800–600 BC|lk=no}} giving rise to many different alphabets used to write the [[Italic languages]], like the [[Etruscan alphabet]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Etruscology |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-934078-49-5 |editor-last=Naso |editor-first=Alessandro |location=Boston}}</ref> One of these became the Latin alphabet, which spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their republic. After the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It came to be used for the [[Romance languages]] that descended from Latin and most of the other languages of western and central Europe. Today, it is the most widely used script in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jeffery |first1=L. H. |title=The Local Scripts of Archaic Greece: A Study of the Origin of the Greek Alphabet and Its Development from the Eighth to the Fifth Centuries B.C. |last2=Johnston |first2=A. W. |publisher=Clarendon |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-19-814061-0 |edition=Rev. |series=Oxford Monographs on Classical Archaeology}}</ref> The Etruscan alphabet remained nearly unchanged for several hundred years. Only evolving once the [[Etruscan language]] changed itself. The letters used for non-existent phonemes were dropped.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bonfante |first=Giuliano |author-link=Giuliano Bonfante |title=The Etruscan language: an introduction |publisher=Manchester University Press |author2=Larissa Bonfante |author2-link=Larissa Bonfante |year=2002 |isbn=0-7190-5539-3 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Afterwards, however, the alphabet went through many different changes. The final classical form of Etruscan contained 20 letters. Four of them are vowels—{{gpm|a, e, i, u}}—six fewer letters than the earlier forms. The script in its classical form was used until the 1st century AD. The Etruscan language itself was not used during the [[Roman Empire]], but the script was used for religious texts.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Etruscan alphabet |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Etruscan-alphabet |access-date=2023-02-08}}</ref> Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet have [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]], a combination of two letters make one, such as [[æ]] in [[Danish and Norwegian alphabet|Danish]] and [[Icelandic alphabet|Icelandic]] and {{gpm|[[Ou (letter)|Ȣ]]}} in [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]]; borrowings from other alphabets, such as the [[thorn (letter)|thorn]] {{gpm|þ}} in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], which came from the [[Runic alphabet|Futhark]] runes;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Sirona |title=Runes |publisher=Sterling |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4027-6006-8 |location=New York}}</ref> and modified existing letters, such as the [[Eth (letter)|eth]] {{gpm|ð}} of Old English and Icelandic, which is a modified ''d''. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian and Italian, which uses the letters ''j, k, x, y,'' and ''w'' only in foreign words.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Robustelli |first1=Cecilia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RszKAgAAQBAJ |title=A Reference Grammar of Modern Italian |last2=Maiden |first2=Martin |date=4 February 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-340-91339-0 |edition=2nd |series=Routledge Reference Grammars |publication-date=May 25, 2007}}</ref> Another notable script is [[Elder Futhark]], believed to have evolved out of one of the [[Old Italic alphabet]]s. Elder Futhark gave rise to other alphabets known collectively as the [[Runic alphabet]]s. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from 100 AD to the late Middle Ages, being engraved on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions found on bone and wood occasionally appear. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet. The exception was for decorative use, where the runes remained in use until the 20th century.<ref>Stifter, David (2010), "Lepontische Studien: ''Lexicon Leponticum'' und die Funktion von ''san'' im Lepontischen", in Stüber, Karin; et al. (eds.), ''Akten des 5.'' ''Deutschsprachigen Keltologensymposiums. Zürich, 7.–10. September 2009,'' Wien.</ref> [[File:Old Hungarian alphabet of János Telegdi.jpg|thumb|[[Old Hungarian script]]]] The [[Old Hungarian script]] was the writing system of the Hungarians. It was in use during the entire history of Hungary, albeit not as an official writing system. From the 19th century, it once again became more and more popular.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maxwell |first=Alexander |year=2004 |title=Contemporary Hungarian Rune-Writing Ideological Linguistic Nationalism within a Homogenous Nation |journal=Anthropos |hdl=10063/674}}</ref> The [[Glagolitic alphabet]] was the initial script of the liturgical language [[Old Church Slavonic]] and became, together with the Greek uncial script, the basis of the [[Cyrillic script]]. Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts and is notable for its use in Slavic languages and also for other languages within the former [[Soviet Union]]. [[Cyrillic alphabets]] include [[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet|Serbian]], [[Macedonian alphabet|Macedonian]], [[Bulgarian alphabet|Bulgarian]], [[Russian alphabet|Russian]], [[Belarusian alphabet|Belarusian]], and [[Ukrainian alphabet|Ukrainian]]. The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]], while the Cyrillic alphabet was created by a circle of their disciples in the [[Preslav Literary School]] including [[Naum of Preslav]], [[Constantine of Preslav]], [[Chernorizets Hrabar]] among others. They feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or influenced by Greek and Hebrew.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Glagolitic alphabet |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Glagolitic-alphabet |access-date=2022-11-30}}</ref> ==== Asian alphabets ==== Many phonetic scripts exist in Asia. The [[Arabic alphabet]], [[Hebrew alphabet]], [[Syriac alphabet]], and other [[abjad]]s of the Middle East are developments of the [[Aramaic alphabet]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aramaic Alphabet |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/483026807/Aramaic-Alphabet |access-date=2023-01-04 |website=Scribd}}{{bsn|date=September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Blau |first=Joshua |title=Phonology and morphology of Biblical Hebrew: an introduction |publisher=Eisenbrauns |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-57506-601-1 |location=Winona Lake, IN}}</ref> Most alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia descend from the [[Brahmi script]], believed to be a descendant of Aramaic.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Brāhmī |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahmi |access-date=2023-01-04}}</ref> European alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad, as with [[Urdu alphabet|Urdu]] and [[Persian alphabet|Persian]], and sometimes as a complete alphabet, as with [[Kurdish alphabet|Kurdish]] and [[Uyghur alphabet|Uyghur]].<ref>Thackston, W. M. (2006), "—Sorani Kurdish— A Reference Grammar with Selected Readings", ''Harvard Faculty of Arts & Sciences'', Harvard University, retrieved 10 June 2021</ref>{{sfn|Zhou|2003|p={{pn|date=November 2024}}}}
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