Editing Anti-Americanism (section)

==Interpretations==
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright plainrowheaders" style="border:1px black; float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ style="background:#f8cccc;" colspan="2"|Results of 2021 [[Morning Consult]] poll<ref name="Morning Consult">{{cite web |title=How the World Sees America Amid Its Chaotic Withdrawal from Afghanistan |agency=Morning Consult |date=26 August 2021 |url=https://morningconsult.com/2021/08/26/united-states-favorability-global-countries-afghanistan/ |access-date=31 August 2021 |archive-date=31 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831092800/https://morningconsult.com/2021/08/26/united-states-favorability-global-countries-afghanistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref> "Do you have
a favorable or unfavorable view of the U.S.?"<br />(default-sorted by decreasing negativity of each country) 
! scope="col" | Country polled
! scope="col" | <small>Positive</small>
! scope="col" | <small>Negative</small>
! scope="col" | <small>Neutral</small>
! scope="col" | <small>Difference</small>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|China}}
| {{Percentage bar|18|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|77|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|5|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:red;">-59</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| {{Percentage bar|41|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|44|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|15|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:red;">-3</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| {{Percentage bar|41|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|42|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|17|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:red;">-1</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| {{Percentage bar|42|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|39|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|19|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+3</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| {{Percentage bar|46|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|38|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|16|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+8</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| {{Percentage bar|49|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|35|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|16|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+14</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|Spain}}
| {{Percentage bar|51|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|34|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|15|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+17</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|France}}
| {{Percentage bar|50|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|26|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|24|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+24</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|Italy}}
| {{Percentage bar|54|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|29|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|17|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+25</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|Japan}}
| {{Percentage bar|53|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|23|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|24|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+30</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|South Korea}}
| {{Percentage bar|60|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|25|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|15|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+35</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|Mexico}}
| {{Percentage bar|67|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|14|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|19|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+53</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
| {{Percentage bar|72|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|12|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|16|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+60</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|United States}}
| {{Percentage bar|78|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|17|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|5|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+61</span>
|-
! scope="row" | {{flagcountry|India}}
| {{Percentage bar|79|c=#80FF80|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|10|c=#FF8080|width=50}} || {{Percentage bar|11|c=#F5F5DC|width=50}} || <span style="color:green;">+69</span>
|-
|}

In a poll conducted {{as of|2017|alt=in 2017}} by the [[BBC World Service]] of 19 countries, four of the countries rated U.S. influence positively, while 14 leaned negatively, and one was divided.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2017/globescan-poll-world-views-world-service|title=Sharp drop in world views of US, UK: Global poll for BBC World Service|agency=BBC World Service|date=3 July 2017|archive-date=9 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709162714/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2017/globescan-poll-world-views-world-service|url-status=live}}</ref>

Anti-Americanism had risen in the late 2010s in Canada, Latin America, the Middle East, and the European Union, due in part to the strong worldwide unpopularity of the [[First presidency of Donald Trump|Donald Trump administration]]'s policies, though anti-Americanism is noted to be low in numerous countries of central and eastern Europe due to stronger [[Anti-communism|anti-communist sentiment]] amongst numerous former [[Warsaw Pact]] [[Satellite state#Soviet satellite states|satellite states]] of the Soviet Union and strong support for [[Enlargement of NATO|joining]] and remaining within the [[NATO]] alliance.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/international-view-of-trump-735190/|title=Good News: International Confidence in American Leadership Has Plummeted|first1=Ryan|last1=Bort|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|date=9 October 2018|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613145847/https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/international-view-of-trump-735190/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Greenwood |first=Shannon |date=2020-02-10 |title=NATO Seen Favorably Across Member States |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/02/09/nato-seen-favorably-across-member-states/ |access-date=2023-04-28 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |language=en-US}}</ref> Following the [[2020 United States presidential election|2020 election]] of [[Joe Biden]] as new president, overall global views of the United States have returned to being positive overall once more.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2021/06/10/americas-image-abroad-rebounds-with-transition-from-trump-to-biden/|title=America's Image Abroad Rebounds With Transition From Trump to Biden|date=10 June 2021|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613145723/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2021/06/10/americas-image-abroad-rebounds-with-transition-from-trump-to-biden/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarized. Anti-Americanism has been described by Hungarian-born American sociologist [[Paul Hollander]] as "a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values".<ref name="Hollander2007">{{cite web |last=Hollander |first=Paul |title=The Politics of Envy |work=The New Criterion |date=November 2002 |url= http://www.travelbrochuregraphics.com/extra/politics_of_envy.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100906002655/http://www.travelbrochuregraphics.com/extra/politics_of_envy.htm |archive-date=6 September 2010}}</ref><ref>Jay Nordlinger, [http://old.nationalreview.com/nordlinger/nordlinger200407221016.asp Hollander's Clear Eye] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811012059/http://old.nationalreview.com/nordlinger/nordlinger200407221016.asp |date=11 August 2011}}, 22 July 2004, National Review Online.</ref>

[[Germany|German]] newspaper publisher and political scientist [[Josef Joffe]] suggests five classic aspects of the phenomenon: reducing Americans to [[Stereotypes of Americans|stereotypes]], believing the United States to have an irredeemably evil nature, ascribing to the U.S. establishment a vast conspiratorial power aimed at utterly [[American imperialism|dominating the globe]], holding the U.S. responsible for all the evils in the world, and seeking to limit the influence of the U.S. by destroying it or by cutting oneself and one's society off from its polluting products and practices.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mead |first=Walter Russell |title=Through Our Friends' Eyes – Defending and Advising the Hyperpower |magazine=[[Foreign Affairs]] |date=May–June 2006 |url= http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060501fareviewessay85311a/walter-russell-mead/through-our-friends-eyes-defending-and-advising-the-hyperpower.html |access-date=12 April 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080706145354/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20060501fareviewessay85311a/walter-russell-mead/through-our-friends-eyes-defending-and-advising-the-hyperpower.html |archive-date=6 July 2008 }} Review of Josef Joffe's ''Überpower: The Imperial Temptation of America.''</ref> Other advocates of the significance of the term argue that anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous [[ideology|ideological]] current, comparable to [[anti-Semitism]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Markovits |first=Andrei S. |title=European Anti-Americanism (and Anti-Semitism): Ever Present Though Always Denied |work=Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism: Web Publications |publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs |date=August 2005 |url= http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-markovits-05.htm |access-date=1 May 2016 |url-status=unfit |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051401/http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-markovits-05.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> Anti-Americanism has also been described as an attempt to frame the consequences of [[Foreign policy of the United States|U.S. foreign policy]] choices as evidence of a specifically American moral failure, as opposed to what may be unavoidable failures of a complicated foreign policy that comes with [[superpower]] status.<ref>Kagan, Robert. ''Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order'' (2003)</ref>

Its status as an "[[-ism]]" is a greatly contended suspect, however. Brendon O'Connor notes that studies of the topic have been "patchy and impressionistic," and often one-sided attacks on anti-Americanism as an irrational position.<ref name="OConnor"/> American academic [[Noam Chomsky]], a prolific critic of the U.S. and its policies, asserts that the use of the term within the U.S. has parallels with methods employed by [[totalitarian]] states or [[military dictatorship]]s; he compares the term to "[[Anti-Soviet agitation|anti-Sovietism]]", a label used by the [[Kremlin]] to suppress dissident or critical thought, for instance.<ref>[http://www.zmag.org/chomskypa.htm Interviewing Chomsky] {{webarchive |url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20021113190538/http://www.zmag.org/chomskypa.htm |date=13 November 2002}} Preparatory to Porto: Alegre ''Zmagazine''</ref><ref name="Chomsky_1994_interview">{{cite web |last1=Leistyna |first1=Pepi |last2=Sherblom |first2=Stephen |title=On Violence and Youth – Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pepi Leistyna and Stephen Sherblom |publisher=chomsky.info, quoting Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 65, No. 2, Summer 1995 [Fall 1994] |year=1994 |url= http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/1994----02.htm |access-date=5 January 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080109110410/http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/1994----02.htm |archive-date=9 January 2008 }}</ref><ref name="Chomsky_2004">{{Cite news |title=Noam Chomsky on the State of the Nation, Iraq and the Election |work=Democracy Now! |date=21 October 2004 |url=http://www.democracynow.org/2004/10/21/noam_chomsky_on_the_state_of |access-date=5 January 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080109092943/http://www.democracynow.org/2004/10/21/noam_chomsky_on_the_state_of |archive-date=9 January 2008 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewP5tNLBb2E Chomsky on Religion (Interview)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819064733/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewP5tNLBb2E |date=19 August 2013 }}, YouTube.</ref>

{{blockquote|The concept "anti-American" is an interesting one. The counterpart is used only in totalitarian states or military dictatorships... Thus, in the old Soviet Union, dissidents were condemned as "anti-Soviet". That's a natural usage among people with deeply rooted totalitarian instincts, which identify state policy with the society, the people, the culture. In contrast, people with even the slightest concept of democracy treat such notions with ridicule and contempt.<ref name="Chomsky_2002">{{cite web |last=Martin |first=Jacklyn |title=Is Chomsky 'anti-American'? Noam Chomsky |publisher=chomsky.info, re-quoting The Herald |date=9 December 2002 |url=http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20021209.htm |access-date=5 December 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071220091256/http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20021209.htm |archive-date=20 December 2007  }}</ref>}}

Some have attempted to recognize both positions. French academic Pierre Guerlain has argued that the term represents two very different tendencies: "One systematic or essentialist, which is a form of prejudice targeting all Americans. The other refers to the way criticisms of the United States are labeled 'anti-American' by supporters of U.S. policies in an ideological bid to discredit their opponents".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Pierre Guerlain, ''A Tale of Two Anti-Americanisms'' |journal=European Journal of American Studies |publisher=European Journal of American Studies, ejas.revues.org |year=2007 |volume=2 |issue=2 |doi=10.4000/ejas.1523 |url=http://ejas.revues.org/document1523.html |access-date=11 May 2012 |archive-date=26 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226180357/http://ejas.revues.org/document1523.html |url-status=live |last1=Guerlain |first1=Pierre |doi-access=free }}</ref> Guerlain argues that these two "ideal types" of anti-Americanism can sometimes merge, thus making discussion of the phenomenon particularly difficult. Other scholars have suggested that a plural of anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, more accurately describe the phenomenon than any broad generalization.<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Katzenstein|first1 = Peter|first2 = Robert|last2 = Keohane|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Jy9bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA273|chapter = Conclusion: Anti-Americanisms and the Polyvalence of America|title = Anti-Americanisms in World Politics|location = Ithaca|publisher = Cornell University Press|date = 2011|isbn = 9780801461651|access-date = 8 November 2020|archive-date = 2 December 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211202141814/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jy9bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA273|url-status = live}}</ref> The widely used "anti-American sentiment", meanwhile, less explicitly implies an ideology or belief system.

Globally, increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies or actions,<ref>Rodman, Peter W. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_2000_Summer/ai_63649343#continue The world's resentment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050908130300/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_2000_Summer/ai_63649343 |date=8 September 2005 }}, ''The National Interest,'' Washington, D.C., vol. 601, Summer 2001</ref> such as the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] and [[Iraq War|Iraq]]<ref>[http://www.wws.princeton.edu/ppns/papers/speulda.pdf Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526213422/http://www.wws.princeton.edu/ppns/papers/speulda.pdf |date=26 May 2006 }}
By Nicole Speulda, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005</ref> wars. For this reason, critics sometimes argue the label is a propaganda term that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational.<ref>O'Connor, Brendan, op. cit., p 78: "...&nbsp;Cold War (1945–1989) ... In this period the false and disingenuous labeling of objections to American policies as 'anti-Americanism' became more prominent."</ref> American historian Max Paul Friedman has written that throughout American history the term has been misused to stifle domestic dissent and delegitimize any foreign criticism.<ref>{{cite book|last=Friedman|first=Max Paul|title=Rethinking Anti-Americanism: The History of an Exceptional Concept in American Foreign Relations|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=9780521683425}}</ref> According to an analysis by German historian Darius Harwardt, the term is nowadays mostly used to stifle debate by attempting to discredit viewpoints that oppose American policies.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Harwardt |first=Darius |title=Verehrter Feind: Amerikabilder deutscher Rechtsintellektueller in der Bundesrepublik |publisher=Campus Verlag |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-593-51111-5 |location=Frankfurt, Germany |pages=57ff., 241ff |language=de |oclc=1124800558}}</ref>