Editing Banknote (section)

==Materials used for banknotes==

===Paper banknotes===
[[File:US-$100-FRN-1928-Fr.2150-G.jpg|thumb|right |Obverse and reverse of an old American $100 note (1928)]]
Until recently, most banknotes were made from [[cotton paper]] with a weight of 80 to 90&nbsp;grams per square meter. The cotton is sometimes mixed with [[linen]], [[abaca]], or other textile fibres. Generally, the paper used is different from ordinary paper: it is much more resilient, resists wear and tear (the average life of a paper banknote is two years),<ref name="DeLaRue">{{cite web |url=http://www.delarue.com/ProductsSolutions/BanknoteProduction/TheBanknoteLifecyc/ |title=The Banknote Lifecycle – from Design to Destruction |website=De La Rue |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513043414/http://www.delarue.com/ProductsSolutions/BanknoteProduction/TheBanknoteLifecyc/ |archive-date=2012-05-13}}</ref> and also does not contain the usual agents that make ordinary paper glow slightly under [[ultraviolet]] light. Unlike most printing and writing paper, banknote paper is infused with polyvinyl alcohol or gelatin, instead of water, to give it extra strength. Early Chinese banknotes were printed on paper made of [[mulberry]] bark. Mitsumata (''[[Edgeworthia chrysantha]]'') and other fibers are used in Japanese banknote paper<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.npb.go.jp/en/intro/seizou.html |publisher=[Japanese] National Printing Bureau |title=Banknote Production Process |website=www.npb.go.jp |access-date=16 April 2018 |archive-date=17 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417012136/http://www.npb.go.jp/en/intro/seizou.html |url-status=live }}</ref> (a kind of [[Washi]]).

Most banknotes are made using the mould-made process, in which a [[watermark]] and thread are incorporated during the paper forming process. The thread is a simple-looking security component found in most banknotes. It is, however, often rather complex in construction, comprising fluorescent, magnetic, metallic, and microprint elements. By combining it with watermarking technology, the thread can be made to surface periodically on one side only. This is known as windowed thread and further increases the counterfeit resistance of the banknote paper. This process was invented by Portals, part of the [[De La Rue]] group in the UK. Other related methods include watermarking to reduce the number of corner folds by strengthening this part of the note. Varnishing and coatings reduce the accumulation of dirt on the note for longer durability in circulation.

[[File:Rupiah Tahun Emisi 2022.jpg|thumb|Many currencies, such as the [[Indonesian rupiah]], vary the sizes of their banknotes by denomination. This is done so that they may be told apart through touch alone.{{cn|date=December 2022}}]]

Another security feature is based on windows in the paper, which are covered by [[hologram|holographic foils]] to make it very hard to copy. Such technology is applied as a ''portrait window'' for the higher denominations of the Europa series (ES2) of the [[euro]] banknotes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/euro/banknotes/security/html/index.en.html|title=Security features. Europa series €100 banknote|access-date=2019-07-11|website=European Central Bank|year=2019|archive-date=12 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112065935/https://www.ecb.europa.eu/euro/banknotes/security/html/index.en.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Windows are also used with the Hybrid substrate from [[Giesecke+Devrient]] which is composed of an inner layer of paper substrate with thin outer layers of plastic film for high durability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.louisenthal.com/language/en/home/specials/hybrid/|title=Hybrid Banknote Substrate|access-date=2019-07-11|website=Papierfabrik Louisenthal|archive-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413233317/https://www.louisenthal.com/language/en/home/specials/hybrid/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===History of counterfeiting and security measures===

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| caption1 = Obverse of the 1929 issue of E£1 banknote showing a photo of an Egyptian citizen
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When paper bank notes were first introduced in England, they resulted in a dramatic rise in counterfeiting.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} The attempts by the Bank of England and the Royal Mint to stamp out currency crime led to new policing strategies, including the increased use of entrapment.<ref>{{Cite journal |title= How Criminal were the Irish? Bias in the Detection of London Currency Crime, 1797–1821 |journal= The London Journal |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=36–52 |date= 2018 |doi= 10.1080/03058034.2016.1270876 |first= Adam |last= Crymble |doi-access= free |hdl= 2299/19710 |hdl-access= free }}</ref>

The characteristics of banknotes, their materials and production techniques (as well as their development over history) are topics that are not usually thoroughly examined by historians, even though there are now a number of works detailing how bank notes were actually constructed. This is mostly because historians tend to be more interested in a theoretical understanding of how money worked rather than how it was produced.<ref>[[#mockford-2014|Mockford, 2014; pp. 118–119]] quote="Detailed discussion of the material characteristics of Bank Notes, as well as the methods used in their construction, have therefore tended to constitute merely a footnote in historical works that have often prioritised both contemporary and modern theoretical understandings of money and exchange."</ref> The first great deterrent against counterfeiting was the death penalty for forgers, but this was not enough to stop the rise of counterfeiting. Over the 18th century, far fewer banknotes were circulating in England compared to the boom of bank notes in the 19th century; because of this, improved note-making techniques were not considered a compelling issue.

In the 18th century, banknotes were produced mainly by [[copper-plate engraving]] and [[printing]], and they were single-sided. Note-making technologies remained largely unchanged during the 18th century.<ref>[[#mockford-2014|Mockford, 2014; p. 121]] quote="The technologies employed by the Bank in the making of its notes were ones that altered very little throughout the course of the long eighteenth century, with major changes not occurring until well after the close of this period."</ref> The first banknotes were produced by [[intaglio printing]]: this involved engraving a copper plate by hand and then covering it in ink to print the bank notes. Only with this technique, at that time, could one force the paper into the lines of the engraving to make suitable banknotes. Another difficulty in counterfeiting banknotes was the paper, as the type of paper used for banknotes was rather different from the paper commercially available at that time. Despite this, some forgers successfully forged notes by dealing with and consulting paper makers, in order to make a similar kind of paper themselves.<ref name=mockford_122-123>[[#mockford-2014|Mockford, 2014; pp. 122–123]]</ref> Furthermore, [[watermark|watermarked paper]] has also been used since banknotes first appeared; it involved the sewing of a thin wire frame into paper mould. Watermarks for notes were first used in 1697, by Rice Watkins, a [[Berkshire]] paper maker.<ref name=mockford_122-123/> Watermarks and special paper made it harder and more expensive to forge banknotes, since more complex and expensive paper-making machines were needed.

In the early 19th century (the so-called [[Bank Restriction Period]], 1797–1821), the dramatically increased demand for bank notes slowly forced the banks to refine the technologies employed.<ref name="mockford_122-123"/> In 1801, watermarks, which previously were straight lines, became wavy—an idea of William Brewer, a watermark mould maker. This made counterfeiting bank notes harder still, at least in the short term, and in 1803 the number of forged bank notes fell to just 3000, compared to 5000 the previous year.<ref>[[#mockford-2014|Mockford, 2014; p. 126]]</ref> Banks asked skilled engravers and artists to help them make their notes more difficult to counterfeit during the same time period, which historians refer to as "the search for the inimitable banknote." During this time, bank notes also began to be double-sided and have more intricate patterns.<ref>[[#mockford-2014|Mockford, 2014; p. 127]]</ref>

The ease with which paper money can be created, by both legitimate authorities and counterfeiters, has led to a temptation in times of crisis such as war or revolution, or merely a spendthrift government, to produce paper money which was not supported by precious metal or other goods; this often led to [[hyperinflation]] and a loss of faith in the value of paper money, e.g. the [[Continental Currency]] produced by the [[Continental Congress]] during the [[American Revolution]], the [[Assignat]]s produced during the [[French Revolution]], the paper currency produced by the [[Confederate States of America]] and the [[Southern States Confederate Currency|individual states of the Confederate States of America]], the financing of World War I by the [[Central Powers]] (by 1922 1 gold [[Austro-Hungarian krone]] of 1914 was worth 14,400 paper Kronen), the devaluation of the [[Yugoslav dinar]] in the 1990s, etc. Banknotes may also be [[overprinted]] to reflect political or economic changes that occur faster than new currency can be printed.

In 1988, [[Austria]] produced the 5000 [[Austrian schilling|Schilling]] banknote ([[Mozart]]), which is the first foil application ([[Kinebar|Kinegram]]) to a paper banknote in the history of banknote printing. The application of optical features is now common throughout the world. Many countries' banknotes now have embedded [[holograms]].

===Polymer banknotes===
{{Main|Polymer banknote}}
[[File:ROL 2000 1999 obverse.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Two thousand lei|2000 Romanian lei]] polymer banknote]]
In 1983, [[Costa Rica]] and [[Haiti]] issued the first [[Tyvek]] and the [[Isle of Man]] issued the first [[Bradvek]] polymer (or plastic) banknotes; these were printed by the [[ABCorp|American Banknote Company]] and developed by [[DuPont]]. These early plastic notes were plagued with issues such as ink wearing off, and they were discontinued. In 1988, after significant research and development in [[Australia]] by the [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]] (CSIRO) and the [[Reserve Bank of Australia]], Australia produced the first [[polymer banknote]] made from [[biaxially-oriented polypropylene]] (plastic), and in 1996, Australia became the first country to have a full set of circulating polymer banknotes of all denominations, completely replacing its paper banknotes. Since then, many other countries have adopted circulating polymer banknotes, including [[Bangladesh]], [[Brazil]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[Guatemala]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong SAR (China)]], [[Indonesia]], [[Israel]], [[Malaysia]], [[Mexico]], [[Nepal]], [[New Zealand]], [[Nigeria]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Paraguay]], the [[Philippines]], [[Saudi Arabia]],  [[Romania]], [[Samoa]], [[Singapore]], the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Thailand]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Uruguay]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Zambia]]. Other countries have issued commemorative polymer notes, including [[China]], [[Kuwait]], the [[Northern Bank]] of [[Northern Ireland]], the [[Bank of Scotland]] in [[Scotland]],<ref>{{cite web |title=And finally… Forth Bridges £20 notes enter circulation |url=https://www.scottishconstructionnow.com/articles/and-finally-forth-bridges-20-notes-enter-circulation |website=Scottish Construction Now |access-date=9 February 2025 |language=en |date=28 February 2020}}</ref> and [[Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web |website=About Australia |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/currency.html |title=Our Currency |publisher=Australian Government |access-date=19 July 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110607104633/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/currency.html |archive-date= 7 June 2011 |url-status = dead}}</ref> In 2005, [[Bulgaria]] issued the world's first [[hybrid paper-polymer banknote]].

Polymer banknotes were developed to improve durability and prevent [[counterfeit]]ing through incorporated security features, such as [[optically variable devices]] that are extremely difficult to reproduce.

===Other materials===
Over the years, a number of materials other than paper have been used to print banknotes. This includes various textiles, including silk, and materials such as leather.<ref>S.K. Singh, ''Bank Regulation'', Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 2009, pp. 26–27.</ref>
[[File:Russian-American Co - 1 Ruble (7559).jpg|thumb|[[Russian American Company]]-issued [[Alaskan parchment scrip]] ({{circa|1852}})]]
Silk and other fibers have been commonly used in the manufacture of various banknote papers, intended to provide both additional durability and security. [[Crane and Company]] patented banknote paper with embedded silk threads in 1844 and has supplied paper to the [[United States Treasury]] since 1879. Banknotes printed on pure silk "paper" include "emergency money" [[Notgeld]] issues from a number of German towns in 1923 during a period of fiscal crisis and [[hyperinflation]]. Most notoriously, [[Bielefeld]] produced a number of silk, leather, velvet, linen and wood issues. These issues were produced primarily for collectors, rather than for circulation. They are in demand by collectors. Banknotes printed on cloth include a number of Communist Revolutionary issues in China from areas such as [[Xinjiang]], or Sinkiang, in the United Islamic Republic of East [[Turkestan]] in 1933. Emergency money was also printed in 1902 on [[khaki]] shirt fabric during the [[Second Boer War|Boer War]].

[[Cotton]] fibers, together with 25% linen, are the material of the banknotes in the United States. Leather banknotes (or coins) were issued in a number of [[siege]]s, as well as in other times of emergency. During the [[Russian America|Russian administration of Alaska]], banknotes were printed on [[Alaskan parchment scrip|sealskin]]. A number of 19th-century issues are known in Germanic and Estonia, including the places of [[Tartu|Dorpat]], [[Pärnu|Pernau]], [[Tallinn|Reval]], [[Võru|Werro]], and [[Võisiku|Woiseck]]. In addition to the Bielefeld issues, other German leather [[Notgeld]] from 1923 is known from [[Borna, Leipzig|Borna]], Osterwieck, Paderborn and Pößneck.

Other issues from 1923 were printed on wood, which was also used in Canada in 1763–1764 during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]], and by the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. In 1848, in [[Bohemia]], wooden checkerboard pieces were used as money.

Even [[card money|playing cards]] were used for currency in France in the early 19th century, and in French Canada from 1685 until 1757, the Colony of Louisiana, Dutch Guiana, and in the [[Isle of Man]] in the beginning of the 19th century, and again in Germany after World War I.

Most recently, [[Bisphenol S]] (BPS), has been frequently used in the production of banknotes worldwide. BPS is an [[endocrine disruptor]] that is subject to human dermal absorption through handling banknotes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Bisphenol S, a New Bisphenol Analogue, in Paper Products and Currency Bills and Its Association with Bisphenol A Residues |author=Liao C |author2=Liu F |author3= Kannan K |pmid=22591511 |doi=10.1021/es300876n |volume=46 |issue=12 |date=2012 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |pages=6515–6522|bibcode=2012EnST...46.6515L }}</ref>

===Vertical orientation===
Vertical currency is a type of [[currency]] in which the orientation has been changed from the conventional horizontal orientation to a vertical orientation. Dowling Duncan, a self-touted multidisciplinary design studio, conducted a study in which they determined people tend to handle and deal with money vertically rather than horizontally, especially when the currency is processed through [[Automated Teller Machine|ATM]] and other [[Money changer#Mechanical device|money machine]]s. They also note how money transactions are conducted vertically, not horizontally.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 August 2010 |url=http://dowlingduncan.com/2010/dowling-duncan-redesign-us-bank-notes/ |website=Dowling &#124; Duncan |title=Dowling Duncan redesign the US banknotes |access-date=2012-08-15 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423032115/http://dowlingduncan.com/2010/dowling-duncan-redesign-us-bank-notes/ |archive-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> [[Bermuda dollar|Bermuda]], [[Cape Verdean escudo|Cape Verde]], the [[Eastern Caribbean dollar|Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]], [[Swiss franc|Switzerland]], and [[Venezuelan bolívar|Venezuela]] have adopted vertically oriented currency, though Cape Verde has now reverted to horizontal orientation.

Since 1979, [[Sri Lankan rupee|Sri Lanka]] has printed the reverse of its banknotes vertically. Between 1993 and 2013, Brazil has printed banknotes of 5000 and 50000 [[cruzeiro real|cruzeiros reais]] and the first [[Brazilian real]] series of banknotes has the obverse in traditional horizontal layout, while the reverse is in vertical format. The 2018 [[Banknotes of the Hong Kong dollar|Hong Kong dollar banknotes]] series too has the obverse in traditional horizontal layout, while the reverse is in vertical format.<ref>{{cite press release |date=24 July 2018 |url=http://www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/key-information/press-releases/2018/20180724-5.shtml |title=2018 New Series Hong Kong Banknotes |publisher=[[Hong Kong Monetary Authority]] |access-date=24 July 2018}}</ref>

Early Chinese banknotes were also vertical, due to the direction of Chinese writing.

The [[2018 Canada banknote series|2018 Canadian $10 bill]] featuring a portrait of Canadian civil rights pioneer [[Viola Desmond]] is presented in a vertical format.<ref>{{cite web |author=Brett Bundale |date=8 March 2018 |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2018/03/08/10-bill-featuring-canadian-civil-rights-icon-viola-desmond-to-be-unveiled.html |title=Canada unveils $10 bill featuring civil rights icon Viola Desmond |website=The Star |publisher=Toronto Star Newspapers |access-date=16 April 2018 |archive-date=8 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308184410/https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2018/03/08/10-bill-featuring-canadian-civil-rights-icon-viola-desmond-to-be-unveiled.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/2018/03/new-10-bank-note-featuring-viola-desmond-unveiled/ |title=New $10 bank note featuring Viola Desmond unveiled on International Women's Day |publisher=Bank of Canada |date=8 March 2018 |access-date=16 April 2018}}</ref> The [[Banknotes of Northern Ireland|Northern Irish £5 and £10 notes]] issued by [[Ulster Bank]] for 2019 were also presented in this way.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.irishnews.com/news/northernirelandnews/2018/05/24/news/ulster-bank-unveils-new-vertical-banknotes-1337821/ |title=Ulster Bank reveals 'vertical' banknotes |work=The Irish News |date=24 May 2018 |access-date=25 May 2018 |archive-date=25 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525204722/https://www.irishnews.com/news/northernirelandnews/2018/05/24/news/ulster-bank-unveils-new-vertical-banknotes-1337821/ |url-status=live }}</ref>