Editing Biotechnology (section)

==Examples==
{{further|Outline of biotechnology}}

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g., [[biodegradable plastic]]s, [[vegetable oil]], [[biofuel]]s), and [[Natural environment|environmental]] uses.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amarakoon |first1=Icolyn |last2=Hamilton |first2=Cindy |last3=Mitchell |first3=Sylvia |last4=Tennant |first4=Paula |last5=Roye |first5=Marcia |title=Biotechnology: principles and applications |journal=Pharmacognosy |date=October 20, 2023 |pages=627–645 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-443-18657-8.00017-7 |isbn=978-0-443-18657-8 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780443186578000177 |access-date=November 1, 2024|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of [[microorganism]]s for the manufacture of organic products (examples include [[beer]] and [[milk]] products). Another example is using naturally present [[bacteria]] by the [[mining industry]] in [[bioleaching]].{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities ([[bioremediation]]), and also to produce [[biological warfare|biological weapons]].

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:
* [[Bioinformatics]] (or "gold biotechnology") is an interdisciplinary field that addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as ''[[computational biology]]'', and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale".<ref name="gerstein">Gerstein, M. "[http://www.primate.or.kr/bioinformatics/Course/Yale/intro.pdf Bioinformatics Introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616013805/http://www.primate.or.kr/bioinformatics/Course/Yale/intro.pdf |date=2007-06-16 }}." ''[[Yale University]].'' Retrieved on May 8, 2007.</ref> Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as [[functional genomics]], [[structural genomics]], and [[proteomics]], and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.<ref name=":2">Siam, R. (2009). Biotechnology Research and Development in Academia: providing the foundation for Egypt's Biotechnology spectrum of colors. Sixteenth Annual American University in Cairo Research Conference, American University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt. BMC Proceedings, 31–35.</ref>
* Blue biotechnology is based on the exploitation of sea resources to create products and industrial applications.<ref name=":0" /> This branch of biotechnology is the most used for the industries of refining and combustion principally on the production of [[Biofuel|bio-oils]] with photosynthetic micro-algae.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">Biotech: true colours. (2009). TCE: The Chemical Engineer, (816), 26–31.</ref>
* Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via [[micropropagation]]. Another example is the designing of [[transgenic plant]]s to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional [[industrial agriculture]]. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a [[pesticide]], thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be [[Transgenic maize|Bt corn]]. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.<ref name=":0">Kafarski, P. (2012). [http://www.chemikinternational.com/pdf/2012/08_2012/chemik_8_2012_01.pdf Rainbow Code of Biotechnology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214054125/http://www.chemikinternational.com/pdf/2012/08_2012/chemik_8_2012_01.pdf |date=February 14, 2019 }}. CHEMIK. Wroclaw University</ref> It is commonly considered as the next phase of green revolution, which can be seen as a platform to eradicate world hunger by using technologies which enable the production of more fertile and resistant, towards [[biotic stress|biotic]] and [[abiotic stress]], plants and ensures application of environmentally friendly fertilizers and the use of biopesticides, it is mainly focused on the development of agriculture.<ref name=":0" /> On the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology involve [[microorganism]]s to clean and reduce waste.<ref>Aldridge, S. (2009). The four colours of biotechnology: the biotechnology sector is occasionally described as a rainbow, with each sub sector having its own colour. But what do the different colours of biotechnology have to offer the pharmaceutical industry. Pharmaceutical Technology Europe, (1). 12.</ref><ref name=":0" />
* Red biotechnology is the use of biotechnology in the medical and [[pharmaceutical]] industries, and health preservation.<ref name=":0" /> This branch involves the production of [[vaccine]]s and [[antibiotic]]s, regenerative therapies, creation of artificial organs and new diagnostics of diseases.<ref name=":0" /> As well as the development of [[hormones]], [[stem cells]], [[antibodies]], siRNA and [[diagnostic tests]].<ref name=":0" />
* White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to [[Manufacturing|industrial]] processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of [[enzyme]]s as industrial [[catalyst]]s to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Frazzetto G |date=September 2003 |title=White biotechnology |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=4 |issue=9 |pages=835–7 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.embor928 |pmc=1326365 |pmid=12949582}}</ref><ref name=":4">Frazzetto, G. (2003). [http://embor.embopress.org/content/4/9/835 White biotechnology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111024351/http://embor.embopress.org/content/4/9/835 |date=November 11, 2018 }}. March 21, 2017, de EMBOpress Sitio</ref>
* Yellow biotechnology refers to the use of biotechnology in food production ([[food industry]]), for example in making wine ([[winemaking]]), cheese ([[cheesemaking]]), and beer ([[brewing]]) by [[fermentation]].<ref name=":0" /> It has also been used to refer to biotechnology applied to insects. This includes biotechnology-based approaches for the control of harmful insects, the characterisation and utilisation of active ingredients or genes of insects for research, or application in agriculture and medicine and various other approaches.<ref name=":6">[https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-642-39863-6 Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719084141/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-39863-6 |date=July 19, 2018 }}, Volume 135 2013, Yellow Biotechnology I</ref>
* Gray biotechnology is dedicated to environmental applications, and focused on the maintenance of [[biodiversity]] and the remotion of pollutants.<ref name=":0" />
* Brown biotechnology is related to the management of arid lands and [[desert]]s. One application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme [[desert climate|environmental conditions]] of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources.<ref name=":0" />
* Violet biotechnology is related to law, ethical and philosophical issues around biotechnology.<ref name=":0" />
* Microbial biotechnology has been proposed for the rapidly emerging area of biotechnology applications in space and microgravity (space bioeconomy)<ref name="space">{{cite journal |vauthors=Santomartino R, Averesch NJ, Bhuiyan M, Cockell CS, Colangelo J, Gumulya Y, Lehner B, Lopez-Ayala I, McMahon S, Mohanty A, Santa Maria SR, Urbaniak C, Volger R, Yang J, Zea L |title=Toward sustainable space exploration: a roadmap for harnessing the power of microorganisms |journal=Nature Communications |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1391 |date=March 2023 |pmid=36944638 |pmc=10030976 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-37070-2|bibcode=2023NatCo..14.1391S }}</ref>
* Dark biotechnology is the color associated with [[bioterrorism]] or [[biological agent|biological weapons]] and biowarfare which uses microorganisms, and toxins to cause diseases and death in humans, livestock and crops.<ref>Edgar, J.D. (2004). The Colours of Biotechnology: Science, Development and Humankind. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, (3), 01</ref><ref name=":0" />

===Medicine===
In medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as [[pharmaceutical drug]] discoveries and production, [[pharmacogenomics]], and genetic testing (or [[Genetic testing|genetic screening]]). In 2021, nearly 40% of the total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in [[Oncology]] with [[Neurology]] and [[Rare Disease]]s being the other two big applications.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |title=Top Global Pharmaceutical Company Report |work=The Pharma 1000 |date=November 2021 |access-date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=March 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315051910/https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Microarray2.gif|thumb|[[DNA microarray]] chip – some can do as many as a million blood tests at once. ]]

[[Pharmacogenomics]] (a combination of [[pharmacology]] and [[genomics]]) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs.<ref>Ermak G. (2013) ''Modern Science & Future Medicine'' (second edition)</ref> Researchers in the field investigate the influence of [[genetics|genetic]] variation on drug responses in patients by correlating [[gene expression]] or [[single-nucleotide polymorphism]]s with a drug's [[efficacy]] or [[toxicity]].<ref name="pmid20836007">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Wang L |year=2010 |title=Pharmacogenomics: a systems approach |journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Systems Biology and Medicine |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=3–22 |doi=10.1002/wsbm.42 |pmc=3894835 |pmid=20836007}}</ref> The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' [[genotype]], to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal [[adverse effect (medicine)|adverse effects]].<ref name="pmid19530963">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Becquemont L |date=June 2009 |title=Pharmacogenomics of adverse drug reactions: practical applications and perspectives |journal=Pharmacogenomics |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=961–9 |doi=10.2217/pgs.09.37 |pmid=19530963}}</ref> Such approaches promise the advent of "[[personalized medicine]]"; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm126957.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm126957.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=dead |title=Guidance for Industry Pharmacogenomic Data Submissions |date=March 2005 |publisher=[[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=August 27, 2008}}</ref><ref name="pmid20712531">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Squassina A, Manchia M, Manolopoulos VG, Artac M, Lappa-Manakou C, Karkabouna S, Mitropoulos K, Del Zompo M, Patrinos GP |date=August 2010 |title=Realities and expectations of pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine: impact of translating genetic knowledge into clinical practice |journal=Pharmacogenomics |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1149–67 |doi=10.2217/pgs.10.97 |pmid=20712531}}</ref>

[[File:InsulinHexamer.jpg|thumb|Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold [[symmetry]], the [[zinc]] ions holding it together, and the [[histidine]] residues involved in zinc binding]]

Biotechnology has contributed to the discovery and manufacturing of traditional [[small molecule]] [[pharmaceutical drugs]] as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – [[biopharmaceutics]]. Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 [[Genentech]] developed synthetic humanized [[insulin]] by joining its gene with a [[plasmid]] vector inserted into the bacterium ''[[Escherichia coli]]''. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of [[abattoir]] animals (cattle or pigs). The genetically engineered bacteria are able to produce large quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/geneticengineeri00bain/page/99 |title=Genetic Engineering For Almost Everybody: What Does It Do? What Will It Do? |vauthors=Bains W |publisher=Penguin |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-14-013501-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/geneticengineeri00bain/page/99 99] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="USIS">U.S. Department of State International Information Programs, "Frequently Asked Questions About Biotechnology", USIS Online; available from [http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/economic_issues/biotechnology/biotech_faq.html USinfo.state.gov] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912065554/http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/economic_issues/biotechnology/biotech_faq.html |date=September 12, 2007 }}, accessed September 13, 2007. Cf. {{Cite journal |vauthors=Feldbaum C |date=February 2002 |title=Biotechnology. Some history should be repeated |journal=Science |volume=295 |issue=5557 |page=975 |doi=10.1126/science.1069614 |pmid=11834802|s2cid=32595222 }}</ref> Biotechnology has also enabled emerging therapeutics like [[gene therapy]]. The application of biotechnology to basic science (for example through the [[Human Genome Project]]) has also dramatically improved our understanding of [[biology]] and as our scientific knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well.<ref name=USIS/>

[[Genetic testing]] allows the [[Genetics|genetic]] [[medical diagnosis|diagnosis]] of vulnerabilities to inherited [[diseases]], and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's [[ancestry]]. In addition to studying [[chromosomes]] to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes [[biochemical]] tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in [[chromosomes]], genes, or proteins.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting |title=What is genetic testing? – Genetics Home Reference |date=May 30, 2011 |publisher=Ghr.nlm.nih.gov |access-date=June 7, 2011 |archive-date=May 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529002711/http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting }}</ref> Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a [[genetic disorder]]. As of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/genetictesting.html |title=Genetic Testing: MedlinePlus |publisher=Nlm.nih.gov |access-date=June 7, 2011 |archive-date=June 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608142655/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/genetictesting.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eurogentest.org/patient/public_health/info/public/unit3/DefinitionsGeneticTesting-3rdDraf18Jan07.xhtml |title=Definitions of Genetic Testing |date=September 11, 2008 |website=Definitions of Genetic Testing (Jorge Sequeiros and Bárbara Guimarães) |publisher=EuroGentest Network of Excellence Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204181251/http://eurogentest.org/patient/public_health/info/public/unit3/DefinitionsGeneticTesting-3rdDraf18Jan07.xhtml |archive-date=February 4, 2009 |access-date=August 10, 2008}}</ref> Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by [[genetic counseling]].

===Agriculture===

[[Genetically modified crops]] ("GM crops", or "biotech crops") are plants used in [[agriculture]], the [[DNA]] of which has been modified with [[genetic engineering]] techniques. In most cases, the main aim is to introduce a new [[trait (biology)|trait]] that does not occur naturally in the species. Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture. Furthermore, the protection of intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment in agrobiotechnology.{{cn|date=May 2024}}

Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests,<ref name="news.google.co.uk">[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=A0YyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4631,1776980&hl= Genetically Altered Potato Ok'd For Crops] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731032615/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=A0YyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jOYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4631,1776980&hl= |date=July 31, 2022 }} Lawrence Journal-World – May 6, 1995</ref> diseases,<ref>{{Cite book |last=National Academy of Sciences |title=Transgenic Plants and World Agriculture |publisher=National Academy Press |year=2001 |location=Washington}}</ref> stressful environmental conditions,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ilsi.org/Documents/2011%20AM%20Presentations/CERAPaarlberg.pdf |title=Drought Tolerant GMO Maize in Africa, Anticipating Regulatory Hurdles |last=Paarlburg |first=Robert |date=January 2011 |publisher=International Life Sciences Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222081325/http://www.ilsi.org/Documents/2011%20AM%20Presentations/CERAPaarlberg.pdf |archive-date=December 22, 2014 |access-date=April 25, 2011 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a [[herbicide]]<ref>Carpenter J. & Gianessi L. (1999). [http://agbioforum.org/v2n2/v2n2a02-carpenter.htm Herbicide tolerant soybeans: Why growers are adopting Roundup Ready varieties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119133446/http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n2/v2n2a02-carpenter.htm |date=November 19, 2012 }}. AgBioForum, 2(2), 65–72.</ref>), reduction of spoilage,<ref name="Haroldsen1">{{Cite journal |last1=Haroldsen |first1=Victor M. |last2=Paulino |first2=Gabriel |last3=Chi-ham |first3=Cecilia |last4=Bennett |first4=Alan B. |year=2012 |title=Research and adoption of biotechnology strategies could improve California fruit and nut crops |journal=California Agriculture |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=62–69 |doi=10.3733/ca.v066n02p62 |name-list-style=vanc|doi-access=free |url=http://calag.ucanr.edu/archive/?article=ca.v066n02p62}}</ref> or improving the nutrient profile of the crop.<ref>[http://www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=10202&Itemid=100571&lang=en About Golden Rice] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102112216/http://www.irri.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=10202&Itemid=100571&lang=en |date=November 2, 2012 }}. Irri.org. Retrieved on March 20, 2013.</ref> Examples in non-food crops include production of [[Plant manufactured pharmaceuticals|pharmaceutical agents]],<ref>Gali Weinreb and Koby Yeshayahou for Globes May 2, 2012. [http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000745325&fid=1725 FDA approves Protalix Gaucher treatment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529030847/http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/docview.asp?did=1000745325&fid=1725 |date=May 29, 2013 }}</ref> [[biofuel]]s,<ref>Carrington, Damien (January 19, 2012) [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/19/gm-microbe-seaweed-biofuels GM microbe breakthrough paves way for large-scale seaweed farming for biofuels] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511010433/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/19/gm-microbe-seaweed-biofuels |date=May 11, 2017 }} The Guardian. Retrieved March 12, 2012</ref> and other industrially useful goods,<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=van Beilen JB, Poirier Y |s2cid=25954199 |date=May 2008 |title=Production of renewable polymers from crop plants |journal=The Plant Journal |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=684–701 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-313X.2008.03431.x |pmid=18476872|doi-access=free }}</ref> as well as for [[bioremediation]].<ref>Strange, Amy (September 20, 2011) [http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2011/0913/1224304027463.html Scientists engineer plants to eat toxic pollution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913133755/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/ireland/2011/0913/1224304027463.html |date=September 13, 2011 }} The Irish Times. Retrieved September 20, 2011</ref><ref name="Diaz">{{Cite book |editor=Diaz E |url=https://archive.org/details/microbialbiodegr0000unse |title=Microbial Biodegradation: Genomics and Molecular Biology |publisher=Caister Academic Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-904455-17-2 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops had increased by a factor of 94, from {{convert|17000 to 1,600,000|km2|acre|sp=us}}.<ref name=James2011 /> 10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010.<ref name="James2011">{{Cite web |url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp |title=ISAAA Brief 43, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011 |year=2011 |website=ISAAA Briefs |publisher=International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) |location=Ithaca, New York |access-date=June 2, 2012 |vauthors=James C |archive-date=February 10, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210025832/http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on {{convert|395|e6acre|e6ha|abbr=off}} in 29 countries such as the US, [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], [[India]], Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain.<ref name=James2011 />

[[Genetically modified food]]s are foods produced from [[organism]]s that have had specific changes introduced into their [[DNA]] with the methods of [[genetic engineering]]. These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as [[selective breeding]] and [[mutation breeding]].<ref>[http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf GM Science Review First Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016100707/http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf |date=October 16, 2013 }}, Prepared by the UK GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman Professor Sir David King, Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK Government, P 9</ref> Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when [[Calgene]] first marketed its [[Flavr Savr]] delayed ripening tomato.<ref name="James 1996">{{Cite web |url=http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995 |last=James |first=Clive |year=1996 |publisher=The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications |access-date=July 17, 2010 |name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> To date most genetic modification of foods have primarily focused on [[cash crop]]s in high demand by farmers such as [[Transgenic soybean|soybean]], [[Transgenic maize|corn]], [[canola]], and [[cotton seed oil]]. These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed; in November 2013 none were available on the market,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/ucm113672.htm |title=Consumer Q&A |date=March 6, 2009 |publisher=Fda.gov |access-date=December 29, 2012 |archive-date=January 10, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130110170104/http://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/ucm113672.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> but in 2015 the FDA approved the first GM salmon for commercial production and consumption.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/ucm280853.htm |title=AquAdvantage Salmon |publisher=FDA |access-date=July 20, 2018 |archive-date=December 31, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231004929/http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/GeneticEngineering/GeneticallyEngineeredAnimals/ucm280853.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

There is a [[scientific consensus]]<ref name="Nicolia2013"/><ref name="FAO" /><ref name="Ronald2011" /><ref name="Also"/> that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,<ref name="AAAS2012"/><ref name="ECom2010" /><ref name="AMA2001"/><ref name="LoC2015" /><ref name="NAS2016" /> but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.<ref name="WHOFAQ"/><ref name="Haslberger2003" /><ref name="BMA2004"/> Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.<ref name="PEW2015" /><ref name="Marris2001" /><ref name="PABE" /><ref name="Scott2016" /> The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.<ref name="loc.gov" /><ref name="Bashshur" /><ref name="Sifferlin" /><ref name="Council on Foreign Relations" />

GM crops also provide a number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{Cite news |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/14/business/energy-environment/14crop.html |title=Study Says Overuse Threatens Gains From Modified Crops |date=April 13, 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]] |name-list-style=vanc |access-date=February 24, 2017 |archive-date=November 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171121075939/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/14/business/energy-environment/14crop.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Insect-resistant crops have proven to lower pesticide usage, therefore reducing the environmental impact of pesticides as a whole.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brookes |first1=Graham |last2=Barfoot |first2=Peter |date=2017-05-08 |title=Farm income and production impacts of using GM crop technology 1996–2015 |journal=GM Crops & Food |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=156–193 |doi=10.1080/21645698.2017.1317919 |pmid=28481684 |pmc=5617554 |issn=2164-5698}}</ref> However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.

Biotechnology has several applications in the realm of food security. Crops like [[Golden rice]] are engineered to have higher nutritional content, and there is potential for food products with longer shelf lives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tyczewska |first1=Agata |last2=Twardowski |first2=Tomasz |last3=Woźniak-Gientka |first3=Ewa |date=January 2023 |title=Agricultural biotechnology for sustainable food security |journal=Trends in Biotechnology |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=331–341 |doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2022.12.013 |pmid=36710131 |pmc=9881846 |s2cid=256304868 |issn=0167-7799}}</ref> Though not a form of agricultural biotechnology, vaccines can help prevent diseases found in animal agriculture. Additionally, agricultural biotechnology can expedite breeding processes in order to yield faster results and provide greater quantities of food.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sairam |first1=R. V. |last2=Prakash |first2=C. S. |date=July 2005 |title=OBPC Symposium: maize 2004 & beyond—Can agricultural biotechnology contribute to global food security? |journal=In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=424–430 |doi=10.1079/ivp2005663 |bibcode=2005IVCDB..41..424S |s2cid=25855065 |issn=1054-5476}}</ref> Transgenic [[biofortification]] in [[cereal]]s has been considered as a promising method to combat malnutrition in India and other countries.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Kumar |first1=Pankaj |title=Recent Progress in Cereals Biofortification to Alleviate Malnutrition in India: An Overview |date=2021 |work=Agricultural Biotechnology: Latest Research and Trends |pages=253–280 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Nature Singapore |isbn=978-981-16-2338-7 |last2=Kumar |first2=Arun |last3=Dhiman |first3=Karuna |last4=Srivastava |first4=Dinesh Kumar|doi=10.1007/978-981-16-2339-4_11 |s2cid=245834290 }}</ref>

===Industrial===
Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including [[industrial fermentation]]. It includes the practice of using [[Cell (biology)|cells]] such as [[microorganism]]s, or components of cells like [[enzyme]]s, to generate [[Industry (manufacturing)|industrially]] useful products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and [[biofuel]]s.<ref>[http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/media/documents/pdf/Energy_Environment/Industrial_biotech_and_biomass_utilisation_EGM_report.pdf Industrial Biotechnology and Biomass Utilisation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405175248/http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/media/documents/pdf/Energy_Environment/Industrial_biotech_and_biomass_utilisation_EGM_report.pdf |date=April 5, 2013 }}</ref> In the current decades, significant progress has been done in creating [[Genetically modified organism|genetically modified organisms (GMOs)]] that enhance the diversity of applications and economical viability of industrial biotechnology. By using renewable raw materials to produce a variety of chemicals and fuels, industrial biotechnology is actively advancing towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a petrochemical-based economy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.innovationeu.org/news/innovation-eu-vol2-1/0262-industrial-biotechnology.html |title=Industrial biotechnology, A powerful, innovative technology to mitigate climate change |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102191501/http://www.innovationeu.org/news/innovation-eu-vol2-1/0262-industrial-biotechnology.html |archive-date=January 2, 2014 |url-status=usurped |access-date=January 1, 2014}}</ref>

[[Synthetic biology]] is considered one of the essential cornerstones in industrial biotechnology due to its financial and sustainable contribution to the manufacturing sector. Jointly biotechnology and synthetic biology play a crucial role in generating cost-effective products with [[Environmentally friendly|nature-friendly]] features by using bio-based production instead of fossil-based.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Clarke|first1=Lionel|last2=Kitney|first2=Richard|date=2020-02-28|title=Developing synthetic biology for industrial biotechnology applications|journal=Biochemical Society Transactions|volume=48|issue=1|pages=113–122|doi=10.1042/BST20190349|issn=0300-5127|pmc=7054743|pmid=32077472}}</ref> Synthetic biology can be used to engineer [[Model organism|model microorganisms]], such as ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', by [[genome editing]] tools to enhance their ability to produce bio-based products, such as [[bioproduction]] of medicines and [[biofuel]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McCarty|first1=Nicholas S.|last2=Ledesma-Amaro|first2=Rodrigo|date=February 2019|title=Synthetic Biology Tools to Engineer Microbial Communities for Biotechnology|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|volume=37|issue=2|pages=181–197|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2018.11.002|issn=0167-7799|pmc=6340809|pmid=30497870}}</ref> For instance, ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]'' and ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' in a consortium could be used as industrial microbes to produce precursors of the [[chemotherapeutic agent]] [[paclitaxel]] by applying the [[metabolic engineering]] in a co-culture approach to exploit the benefits from the two microbes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zhou|first1=Kang|last2=Qiao|first2=Kangjian|last3=Edgar|first3=Steven|last4=Stephanopoulos|first4=Gregory|date=April 2015|title=Distributing a metabolic pathway among a microbial consortium enhances production of natural products|journal=Nature Biotechnology|volume=33|issue=4|pages=377–383|doi=10.1038/nbt.3095|issn=1087-0156|pmc=4867547|pmid=25558867}}</ref>

Another example of synthetic biology applications in industrial biotechnology is the re-engineering of the [[metabolic pathway]]s of ''E. coli'' by [[CRISPR gene editing|CRISPR]] and [[CRISPR interference|CRISPRi]] systems toward the production of a chemical known as [[1,4-Butanediol|1,4-butanediol]], which is used in fiber manufacturing. In order to produce 1,4-butanediol, the authors alter the metabolic regulation of the ''Escherichia coli'' by CRISPR to induce [[point mutation]] in the ''glt''A gene, [[Gene knockout|knockout]] of the ''sad'' gene, and [[Gene knock-in|knock-in]] six genes (''cat''1, ''suc''D, ''4hbd'', ''cat''2, ''bld'', and ''bdh''). Whereas CRISPRi system used to [[Gene knockdown|knockdown]] the three competing genes (''gab''D, ''ybg''C, and ''tes''B) that affect the biosynthesis pathway of 1,4-butanediol. Consequently, the yield of 1,4-butanediol significantly increased from 0.9 to 1.8 g/L.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=Meng-Ying|last2=Sung|first2=Li-Yu|last3=Li|first3=Hung|last4=Huang|first4=Chun-Hung|last5=Hu|first5=Yu-Chen|date=2017-12-15|title=Combining CRISPR and CRISPRi Systems for Metabolic Engineering of E. coli and 1,4-BDO Biosynthesis|journal=ACS Synthetic Biology|volume=6|issue=12|pages=2350–2361|doi=10.1021/acssynbio.7b00251|issn=2161-5063|pmid=28854333}}</ref>

===Environmental===

[[Environmental biotechnology]] includes various disciplines that play an essential role in reducing environmental waste and providing [[Environmentally friendly|environmentally safe]] processes, such as [[Biofilter|biofiltration]] and [[biodegradation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pakshirajan|first1=Kannan|last2=Rene|first2=Eldon R.|last3=Ramesh|first3=Aiyagari|date=2014|title=Biotechnology in environmental monitoring and pollution abatement|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2014|page=235472|doi=10.1155/2014/235472|issn=2314-6141|pmc=4017724|pmid=24864232|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Danso|first1=Dominik|last2=Chow|first2=Jennifer|last3=Streit|first3=Wolfgang R.|date=2019-10-01|title=Plastics: Environmental and Biotechnological Perspectives on Microbial Degradation|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|volume=85|issue=19|doi=10.1128/AEM.01095-19|issn=1098-5336|pmc=6752018|pmid=31324632|bibcode=2019ApEnM..85E1095D }}</ref> The environment can be affected by biotechnologies, both positively and adversely. Vallero and others have argued that the difference between beneficial biotechnology (e.g., [[bioremediation]] is to clean up an oil spill or hazard chemical leak) versus the adverse effects stemming from biotechnological enterprises (e.g., flow of genetic material from transgenic organisms into wild strains) can be seen as applications and implications, respectively.<ref>[[Daniel A. Vallero]], ''Environmental Biotechnology: A Biosystems Approach'', Academic Press, Amsterdam, NV; {{ISBN|978-0-12-375089-1}}; 2010.</ref> Cleaning up environmental wastes is an example of an application of [[environmental biotechnology]]; whereas [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] or loss of containment of a harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology.{{cn|date=May 2024}}

Many cities have installed [[CityTrees]], which use biotechnology to filter pollutants from urban atmospheres.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-09 |title=Debate on robot trees looks to clear the air: What are other countries doing? |url=https://www.echolive.ie/corknews/arid-41266045.html |access-date=2024-01-17 |newspaper=The Echo |language=en}}</ref>

===Regulation===
{{main|Regulation of genetic engineering|Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms}}

The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the [[Biotechnology risk|risks]] associated with the use of [[genetic engineering]] technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including [[genetically modified crops]] and [[genetically modified fish]]. There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Europeans' distaste for gene-edited food |url=https://cen.acs.org/policy/Europeans-distaste-for-gene-edited-food/102/i32 |access-date=2025-05-01 |website=Chemical & Engineering News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Spök |first1=Armin |last2=Sprink |first2=Thorben |last3=Allan |first3=Andrew C. |last4=Yamaguchi |first4=Tomiko |last5=Dayé |first5=Christian |date=2022-08-31 |title=Towards social acceptability of genome-edited plants in industrialised countries? Emerging evidence from Europe, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan |journal=Frontiers in Genome Editing |language=English |volume=4 |doi=10.3389/fgeed.2022.899331 |doi-access=free |pmid=36120531 |issn=2673-3439}}</ref> Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.<ref name="PotatoPro">{{Cite web |url=http://www.potatopro.com/newsletters/20100310.htm |title=The History and Future of GM Potatoes |date=March 10, 2010 |website=Potato Pro |access-date=January 1, 2014 |archive-date=October 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012033805/http://www.potatopro.com/newsletters/20100310.htm }}</ref> The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing.<ref name="Wesseler-2011">{{Cite book |title=EU Policy for Agriculture, Food and Rural Areas |vauthors=Wesseler J, Kalaitzandonakes N |publisher=Wageningen Academic Publishers |year=2011 |veditors=Oskam A, Meesters G, Silvis H |edition=2nd |location=Wageningen |pages=23–332 |chapter=Present and Future EU GMO policy |author-link=Justus Wesseler}}</ref> The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the coexistence of GM and non-GM crops. Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for the cultivation of GM crops differ.<ref name="Beckman-2011">{{Cite book |title=Genetically modified food and global welfare |vauthors=Beckmann VC, Soregaroli J, Wesseler J |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing |year=2011 |veditors=Carter C, Moschini G, Sheldon I |series=Frontiers of Economics and Globalization Series |volume=10 |location=Bingley, UK |pages=201–224 |chapter=Coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-modified (non GM) crops: Are the two main property rights regimes equivalent with respect to the coexistence value? |author-link3=Justus Wesseler}}</ref>

===Database for the GMOs used in the EU===
The [[EUginius]] (European GMO Initiative for a Unified Database System) database is intended to help companies, interested private users and competent authorities to find precise information on the presence, detection and identification of GMOs used in the [[European Union]]. The information is provided in English.{{cn|date=May 2024}}