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== History == {{main|History of books}} [[File:Jingangjing.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The intricate frontispiece of the [[Diamond Sutra]] from [[Tang dynasty]] China, i.e. 868 CE, the oldest known dated printed book in the world ([[British Library]])]] The history of books became an acknowledged academic discipline in the 1980s. Contributions to the field have come from [[textual scholarship]], [[codicology]], [[bibliography]], [[philology]], [[palaeography]], [[art history]], [[social history]] and [[cultural history]]. It aims to demonstrate that the book as an object, not just the text contained within it, is a conduit of interaction between readers and words. Analysis of each component part of the book can reveal its purpose, where and how it was kept, who read it, ideological and [[religious beliefs]] of the period, and whether readers interacted with the text within. Even a lack of such evidence can leave valuable clues about the nature of a particular book. The earliest forms of writing were etched on tablets, transitioning to palm leaves and papyrus in ancient times. Parchment and paper later emerged as important substrates for bookmaking, introducing greater durability and accessibility.<ref name="Blair-1997">{{Cite book |last1=Blair |first1=Sheila |title=Islamic Arts |last2=Bloom |first2=Jonathan |publisher=Phaidon |year=1997 |location=London |pages=193–220 |chapter=Penmen and Painters: The Arts of the Book}}</ref> Across regions like [[China]], the [[Middle East]], [[Europe]], and [[South Asia]], diverse methods of book production evolved. The Middle Ages saw the rise of illuminated manuscripts, intricately blending text and imagery, particularly during the Mughal era in South Asia under the patronage of rulers like Akbar and Shah Jahan.<ref name="Hillenbrand-2002">{{Cite book |last=Hillenbrand |first=Robert |title=The Legacy of Genghis Khan |year=2002 |location=New York |pages=134–167 |chapter=The Arts of the Book in Ilkhanid Iran}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sardar |first=Marika |date=October 2003 |title=The Art of the Mughals after 1600 |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mugh_2/hd_mugh_2.htm |journal=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |location=New York |via=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=2021-05-21 |archive-date=2021-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601151745/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mugh_2/hd_mugh_2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Prior to the invention of the [[printing press]] in the 15th century, made famous by the [[Gutenberg Bible]], each text was a unique handcrafted valuable article, personalized through the design features incorporated by the scribe, owner, bookbinder, and illustrator.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pearson |first=David |title=Books As History: The Importance of Books Beyond Their Texts |publisher=The British Library and Oak Knoll Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7123-5832-3 |location=London |pages=23}}</ref> Its creation marked a pivotal moment for book production. Innovations like movable type and steam-powered presses accelerated manufacturing processes and contributed to increased literacy rates. Copyright protection also emerged, securing authors' rights and shaping the publishing landscape.<ref name="Lyons-2011">{{Cite book |last=Lyons |first=Martyn |title=Books: A Living History |publisher=Getty Publications |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-60606-083-4 |location=Los Angeles |page=116}}</ref> The Late Modern Period introduced [[chapbook]]s, catering to a wider range of readers, and mechanization of the printing process further enhanced efficiency. The 20th century witnessed the advent of typewriters, computers, and desktop publishing, transforming document creation and printing. Digital advancements in the 21st century led to the rise of ebooks, propelled by the popularity of ereaders and accessibility features. While discussions about the potential decline of physical books have surfaced, print media has proven remarkably resilient, continuing to thrive as a multi-billion dollar industry.<ref name="Ballatore-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ballatore |first1=Andrea |last2=Natale |first2=Simone |date=2015-05-18 |title=E-readers and the death of the book: Or, new media and the myth of the disappearing medium |url=http://nms.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/05/18/1461444815586984 |journal=New Media & Society |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=2379–2394 |doi=10.1177/1461444815586984 |issn=1461-4448 |s2cid=39026072 |hdl=2318/1768949 |access-date=2015-09-16 |archive-date=2016-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315084006/http://nms.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/05/18/1461444815586984 |url-status=live |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Additionally, efforts to make literature more inclusive emerged, with the development of Braille for the visually impaired and the creation of spoken books, providing alternative ways for individuals to access and enjoy literature.<ref name="BrailleWorks-2018">{{Cite news |title=History of Braille |language=en-US |work=Braille Works |url=https://brailleworks.com/braille-resources/history-of-braille/ |access-date=2018-07-25 |archive-date=2018-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726072258/https://brailleworks.com/braille-resources/history-of-braille/ |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Instructions of Shurrupak, Sumerian proverb collection, c. 2400 BC - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC07114.JPG|thumb|upright|Fragments of the [[Instructions of Shuruppak]], dated to the early [[3rd millennium BC]]]] === Tablet === {{Main|Clay tablet|Wax tablet}}Some of the earliest written records were made on tablets. Clay tablets (flattened pieces of clay impressed with a [[stylus]]) were used in the [[Ancient Near East]] throughout the [[Bronze Age]] and well into the [[Iron Age]], especially for writing in [[cuneiform]]. Wax tablets (pieces of wood covered in a layer of wax) were used in [[classical antiquity]] and throughout the [[Middle Ages]]. The custom of binding several wax tablets together (Roman ''pugillares'') is a possible precursor of modern bound books.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrin |first=Leila |date=2010 |title=Scribes, Script, and Books: The Book Arts from Antiquity to the Renaissance |publisher=American Library Association |isbn=9780838910382 |page=173}}</ref> The etymology of the word ''codex'' (block of wood) suggests that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.<ref>{{cite book| last = Bischoff| first = Bernhard| others = Dáibhí ó Cróinin| title = Latin palaeography antiquity and the Middle Ages| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CFZgQgAACAAJ| year = 1990| publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge| isbn = 978-0-521-36473-7| page = 11| access-date = August 29, 2020| archive-date = August 21, 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210821053657/https://books.google.com/books?id=CFZgQgAACAAJ| url-status = live}}</ref> === Scroll === {{main|Scroll}} [[File:BD Hunefer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|''[[Book of the Dead]]'' of [[Hunefer]]; c. 1275 BC; ink and pigments on [[papyrus]]; 45 × 90.5 cm; [[British Museum]] (London)]] Scrolls made from [[papyrus]] were first used for writing in [[Ancient Egypt]], perhaps as early as the [[First Dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]], although the earliest evidence is from the account books of King [[Neferirkare Kakai]] of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC). According to [[Herodotus]] (History 5:58), the [[Phoenicians]] brought writing and papyrus to [[Greece]] around the 10th or 9th century BC. Whether made from papyrus, parchment, or paper, scrolls were the dominant writing medium in the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]], Roman, Chinese, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and Macedonian cultures. The codex dominated in the Roman world by [[late antiquity]], but scrolls persisted much longer in Asia.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}} === Codex === {{main|Codex}} [[File:Bamboo book - binding - UCR.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Chinese [[bamboo and wooden slips|bamboo book]]s meet the modern definition of ''codex''. This particular bamboo book is a copy of [[Sun Tzu]]'s ''[[The Art of War]]''.]] The codex is the ancestor of the modern book, consisting of sheets of uniform size [[bookbinding|bound]] along one edge and typically held between two covers made of some more robust material. [[Isidore of Seville]] (died 636) explained the then-current relation between a codex, book, and scroll in his ''[[Etymologiae]]'' (VI.13): "A codex is composed of many books; a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (''codex'') of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches". The first written mention of the codex as a form of book is from [[Martial]], in his ''Apophoreta'' <small>CLXXXIV</small> at the end of the first century, where he praises its compactness. However, the codex never gained much popularity in the pagan Hellenistic world, and only within the Christian community did it gain widespread use.<ref>''The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature''. Edd. Frances Young, Lewis Ayres, Andrew Louth, Ron White. Cambridge University Press 2004, pp. 8–9.</ref> This change happened gradually during the 3rd and 4th centuries, and the reasons for adopting the codex form of the book were several: the format was more economical than the scroll, as both sides of the writing material can be used; and it was portable, searchable, and easier to conceal. The Christian [[author]]s may also have wanted to distinguish their writings from the pagan and Judaic texts written on scrolls. The codices of [[pre-Columbian Mesoamerica]] had the same form as the European codex, but were instead made with long folded strips of either fig bark ([[amatl]]) or plant fibers, often with a layer of [[whitewash]] applied before writing. [[New World]] codices were written as late as the 16th century (see [[Maya codices]] and [[Aztec codex|Aztec codices]]). Those written before the Spanish conquests seem all to have been single long sheets folded concertina-style, sometimes written on both sides of the local ''[[amatl]]'' paper. === Manuscript === {{main|Manuscript}} {{See also|Palm-leaf manuscript}} [[File:RomanVirgilFolio014rVergilPortrait.jpg|thumb|left|Folio 14 recto of the 5th-century [[Vergilius Romanus]] contains an [[author portrait]] of [[Virgil]]. Note the bookcase (''capsa''), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in [[rustic capitals]].]] Manuscripts, handwritten and hand-copied documents, were the only form of writing before the invention and widespread adoption of print. Advances were made in the techniques used to create them. In the early [[Western Roman Empire]], [[Monastery|monasteries]] continued [[Latin literature|Latin]] writing traditions related to [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|Christianity]], and the clergy were the predominant readers and copyists. The bookmaking process was long and laborious. They were usually written on [[parchment]] or [[vellum]], writing surfaces made from processed animal skin. The parchment had to be prepared, then the unbound pages were planned and ruled with a blunt tool or lead, after which the text was written by a [[scribe]], who usually left blank areas for illustration and [[rubrication]]. Finally, it was bound by a bookbinder.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Diehl |first=Edith |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7027090 |title=Bookbinding : its background and technique |date=1980 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=0-486-24020-7 |location=New York |pages=14–16 |oclc=7027090}}</ref> Because of the difficulties involved in making and copying books, they were expensive and rare. Smaller monasteries usually had only a few dozen books. By the 9th century, larger collections held around 500 volumes and even at the end of the Middle Ages, the papal library in [[Avignon]] and Paris library of the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] held only around 2,000 volumes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Joachim |first=Martin D. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/683191430 |title=Historical Aspects of Cataloging and Classification |date=2003 |publisher=Haworth Information Press |isbn=9780789019813 |location=New York |pages=452 |oclc=683191430 |access-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327190225/https://www.worldcat.org/title/683191430 |archive-date=March 27, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The rise of universities in the 13th century led to an increased demand for books, and a new system for copying appeared. The books were divided into unbound leaves (''pecia''), which were lent out to different copyists, so the speed of book production was considerably increased. The system was maintained by secular [[stationery|stationers]] guilds, which produced both religious and non-religious material.<ref>Bernhard Bischoff. ''Latin Palaeography'', pp. 42–43.</ref>[[File:Tavernier Jean Mielot.jpg|thumb|left|Burgundian author and scribe [[Jean Miélot]], from his ''Miracles de Notre Dame'', 15th century]]In India, bound manuscripts made of birch bark or palm leaf had existed since antiquity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kelting |first=M. Whitney |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC&q=saraswati+kankali+tila&pg=PA65 |title=Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-803211-3 |language=en |access-date=October 15, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214094337/https://books.google.com/books?id=elcn1IEJ3CEC&q=saraswati+kankali+tila&pg=PA65 |archive-date=December 14, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> The text in [[Palm-leaf manuscript|palm leaf manuscripts]] was inscribed with a knife pen on rectangular cut and cured palm leaf sheets; coloring was then applied to the surface and wiped off, leaving the ink in the incised grooves. Each sheet typically had a hole through which a string could pass, and with these the sheets were tied together with a string to bind like a book. === Woodblock printing === [[File:Traditional_Bagh_hand_block_print_master_craftsman-artisan-artist_Mohammed_Bilal_Khatri,_Madhya_Pradesh,_India.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bagh print]], a traditional woodblock printing technique that originated in [[Bagh, Dhar|Bagh]], Madhya Pradesh, [[India]]]]{{Main|Woodblock printing}} In woodblock printing, a relief image of an entire page is carved into blocks of wood, inked, and used to print copies of that page. It originated in the [[Han dynasty]] before 220 AD, used to print [[textiles]] and later paper, and was widely used throughout [[East Asia]]. The oldest dated book printed by this method is ''[[The Diamond Sutra]]'' (868 AD). The method (called [[woodcut]] when used in art) arrived in Europe in the early 14th century. Books (known as [[Woodblock printing|block-books]]), as well as [[playing-cards]] and [[old master print|religious pictures]], began to be produced by this method. Creating an entire book was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page, and the wooden blocks could crack if stored for too long. === Movable type and incunabula === {{main|Movable type|Incunable}} [[File:SelectedTeachingsofBuddhistSagesandSonMasters1377.jpg|thumb|left|''Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters'', the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, printed in Korea, in 1377, {{Lang|fr|[[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]|italic=no}}]] The Chinese inventor [[Bi Sheng]] made [[movable type]] of earthenware {{Circa|1045}}, but there are no known surviving examples of his printing. Around 1450, [[Johannes Gutenberg]] independently invented movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and [[hand mould]]. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce and more widely available. Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created before 1501 in Europe are known as [[incunable]]s or ''incunabula''.<ref>[[Michael Clapham (industrialist)|Clapham, Michael]], "Printing" in ''A History of Technology'', Vol 2. ''From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution'', edd. Charles Singer ''et al.'' (Oxford 1957), p. 377. Cited from [[Elizabeth L. Eisenstein]], ''The Printing Press as an Agent of Change'' (Cambridge University, 1980).</ref> [[File:Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg|thumb|upright|A 15th-century [[Incunable]]]] === 19th century to present === Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 19th century. These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bruckner |first1=D. J. R. |title=How the Earlier Media Achieved Critical Mass: Printing Press;Yelling 'Stop the Presses!' Didn't Happen Overnight |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/20/business/earlier-media-achieved-critical-mass-printing-press-yelling-stop-presses-didn-t.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=13 August 2020 |date=20 November 1995 |archive-date=July 1, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701112056/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/20/business/earlier-media-achieved-critical-mass-printing-press-yelling-stop-presses-didn-t.html |url-status=live }}</ref> but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} [[Monotype system|Monotype]] and [[linotype machine|linotype]] typesetting machines were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of type at once. There have been numerous improvements in the printing press. In mid-20th century, European book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year. During the 20th century, libraries faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an [[information explosion]]. The advent of [[electronic publishing]] and the [[internet]] means that new information is often published online rather than in printed books, for example through a [[digital library]]. "[[Print on demand]]" technologies, which make it possible to print as few as one book at a time, have made self-publishing (and [[vanity publishing]]) much easier and more affordable, and has allowed publishers to keep low-selling books in print rather than declaring them out of print.
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