Editing Border reivers (section)

===Governance, culture and territorality of the Anglo-Scottish frontier===

The [[Anglo-Scottish border]]s were shaped by centuries of territorial disputes, cultural integration, and overlapping systems of governance, resulting in one of the most administratively complex regions of medieval Britain.

The traditional narrative places the [[Battle of Carham]] in 1018 as a pivotal moment when Scottish forces secured control over [[Lothian]], marking a fundamental shift in the northern boundary of England.<ref name="auto23"/> However, this interpretation is subject to debate. Some historians question whether the 'loss' of Lothian to Scotland can be definitively dated to 1018, with a range of alternative timelines proposed.<ref name="auto23"/>

Contemporary evidence suggests the gradual establishment of Scottish authority over [[Lothian]] and the [[Anglo-Scottish border|Borders]], marked by the consolidation of continuous royal control around the same time as the [[Norman Conquest]], [[West Lothian (historic)|West Lothian]] and [[Midlothian]] likely dates between [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Máel Coluim III]]’s accession in 1058 and the death of his son [[Edgar, King of Scotland|Edgar]] in 1107. [[East Lothian]] saw consolidation under Máel Coluim III by 1093, with Edgar firmly establishing authority by 1107. [[Berwickshire]] (Merse) was under Máel Coluim III's rule, with Edgar solidifying control around 1100. [[Teviotdale]] ([[Roxburghshire]]) and [[Tweeddale]] fell under continuous Scottish control from 1113 during [[David I of Scotland|David I]]’s tenure. [[Annandale, Scotland|Annandale]] came under [[Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale]] between 1113 and 1124 as a vassal of David I,<ref name="auto18">McGuigan, Neil. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369192168_Donation_and_Conquest_The_Formation_of_Lothian_and_the_Origins_of_the_Anglo-Scottish_Border/fulltext/640f493866f8522c38a02b89/Donation-and-Conquest-The-Formation-of-Lothian-and-the-Origins-of-the-Anglo-Scottish-Border.pdf "Donation and Conquest: The Formation of Lothian and the Origins of the Anglo-Scottish Border."] Offa’s Dyke Journal, vol. 4, 2022, pp. 33–65. ResearchGate</ref> having been conferred upon him by [[Henry I of England]].<ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, pp. 31</ref>

Further enterprising and independent Norman lordships lay in [[South West Scotland]] at the freyed western end of the Borders.<ref name="auto18"/><ref>Stringer, Keith. (2008). "States, Liberties and Communities in Medieval Britain and Ireland (c.1100–1400)." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, 11. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.</ref><ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, pp. 21-24</ref> This period also saw the [[Davidian Revolution|Normanisation of the Scottish nobility]], as Norman lords, brought in by [[David I of Scotland]], introduced new complexities of Norman colonisation in the Borderlands. Many of these lords held land in [[England]] and brought in [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] tenants from their estates south of the border.<ref name="auto8">Hunter, Linsey Forsyth. Charter Diplomatics and Norms of Landholding and Lordship Between the Humber and Forth, c.1066–c.1250. Volume Two, PhD Thesis, University of Stirling, 2016.</ref><ref>Webb, Nigel. Settlement and Integration in Scotland 1124-1214: Local Society and the Development of Aristocratic Communities, with Special Reference to the Anglo-French Settlement of the South East. PhD thesis, University of Glasgow, 2004. pp7-9 Available at: https://theses.gla.ac.uk/3535/</ref>

Concurrently, south of the [[River Tweed|Tweed]], including parts of [[Tweeddale]], it is not entirely clear when the former territories of the [[Rulers of Bamburgh|Earldom of Bamburgh]] fell following [[Norman Conquest|William I's successful invasion of England]]. Neither [[Northumberland]] nor [[Cumberland]] was surveyed in the [[Domesday Book]] in 1085.<ref>Sukhino-Khomenko, Denis (2024). "Thegns Around the North Sea: Elite, Nobility, Aristocracy of the Late Viking Age." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Gothenburg., p20</ref> Into the late 11th century, Lothian was still regarded as one of England's unshired regions, alongside Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland.<ref>McGuigan, Neil. "Lothian and the Scottish Kings." *History Scotland*, Winter 2024, p45</ref> There are strong indications that the area north of the [[River Tyne|Tyne]] remained outside effective Norman control until at least 1090s,<ref>McGuigan, Neil. (2015). Neither Scotland nor England: Middle Britain, c.850–1150. PhD thesis, University of St Andrews. pp159-161</ref> with evidence suggesting the persistence of an independent [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglian]] polity or organised resistance until the early [[12th century]].<ref>McGuigan, Neil. (2015). Neither Scotland nor England: Middle Britain, c.850–1150. PhD thesis, University of St Andrews., pp130-131</ref><ref name="auto18"/>

Following the Norman Conquest, the Anglo-Scottish border in the west remained ambiguous.<ref>Todd, John M. "The West March on the Anglo-Scottish Border in the Twelfth Century, and the Origins of the Western Debatable Land." Northern History, vol. 43, no. 1, March 2006, pp. 11.</ref><ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, pp. 21.</ref> [[William II of England|William Rufus]] in [[1090]] expelled Dolfin of [[Carlisle]], a possible descendant of the Anglo-Saxon Earls of Northumbria, from Cumberland and fortified Carlisle to secure the region.<ref>Robson, Eric. The Border Line. Newcastle upon Tyne: Sandhill Press, 1989.</ref><ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2007, p. 199. {{ISBN|978-1-84158-549-9}}.</ref> It is also suggested that Dolfin may have been installed by [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Máel Coluim III]].<ref>Wilson, James. "An English Letter of Gospatric." The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 1, no. 1, 1903, pp. 63. {{JSTOR|25517441}}</ref>

However, during the period of civil war known as [[The Anarchy]] (1135–1153), [[David I of Scotland]] exploited the instability and advanced southward into northern England. In the Second Treaty of Durham (1139), King Stephen granted the Earldom of Northumbria—encompassing [[Carlisle]], [[Cumberland]], [[Westmorland]], and [[Lancashire]] north of the [[River Ribble|Ribble]]—to David's son, [[Henry of Scotland|Prince Henry]]. These territories were later reclaimed, and David's successor, [[Malcolm IV of Scotland|Malcolm IV]], was forced to cede them. Since then, the Anglo-Scottish border has remained largely unchanged, with only minor adjustments.<ref>Robson, Eric. The Border Line. Frances Lincoln Publishers, London, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-7112-2884-9}}.</ref>

The Anglo-Scottish Border only began to formalise by [[1237]] in the [[Treaty of York]].<ref>Hay, D. "England, Scotland and Europe: The Problem of the Frontier." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 25, 1975, pp. 79. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3679087. Accessed 12 Feb. 2025.</ref>

====Complex and dual identities====
Land ownership and governance in the Anglo-Scottish border region during the 12th and 13th centuries were shaped by a highly mixed population, but the ruling elite was predominantly composed of [[Normans|Norman]], [[Flemish people|Flemish]], and [[Bretons|Breton]] incomers.

These newcomers were granted lands and titles as knights and lords, establishing castles and vast demesnes—some straddling the ambiguous Anglo-Scottish frontier during the Wars of Scottish Independence, which later fueled disputes over land and jurisdiction. The Borderlands, home to Early Scots, Northumbrians, Norse, Brythonic and Gaelic communities, ultimately fell under the control of a newly established ruling class.<ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, p18</ref><ref>Wadden, P. (2013). "Do feartaib Cairnich", Ireland and Scotland in the Twelfth Century. Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium, 33, p218</ref>

The integration of these groups under predominantly [[Normans|Norman]], [[Flemish people|Flemish]], and [[Bretons|Breton]] lords across the border introduced a dual identity and a new layer of governance that often clashed with local traditions, further complicating loyalties and creating a fragmented political landscape.<ref name="auto8"/> The unique March Law can be seen as an example of a distinct regional culture, different from both England and Scotland.<ref>Neville, Cynthia J. Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages. Edinburgh University Press, 1998. {{ISBN|978-0-7486-1073-5}}., p3</ref> This dual identity was further evident in the case of groups like the Armstrongs of Liddesdale, a Scottish clan who had settled in the region from England during the 13th and 14th centuries. Known for their independent and often lawless ways, they were referred to as "Evil Inglis" well into the 16th century, reflecting both their English origins and their feared reputation in Scottish border society.{{sfn|Robson|1989|p=73}} According to late Tudor estimates, Scots comprised  a third of those living within ten miles of the frontier.<ref>Hay, D. "England, Scotland and Europe: The Problem of the Frontier." Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 25, 1975, pp. 83. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3679087.</ref>

Alexander Mason's case exemplifies the complexities of nationality and jurisdiction in the Anglo-Scottish borderlands. In 1441, Mason—a Scot who sometimes resided in Northumberland—was accused of murdering Lawrence Grey in England. His dual identity led to prolonged legal complications, and in 1449 he ultimately secured a royal pardon by swearing allegiance to the English crown.<ref>Cynthia Neville (1988) Border law in late medieval England, The Journal of Legal History, 9:3, 335-356</ref>

The [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] played a key role in this transformation of the Borders, fostering and forcing a growing sense of national belonging that extended across social, cultural and linguistic groups.<ref name="auto8"/><ref>Gledhill, Jonathan (2012) Locality and Allegiance: English Lothian, 1296-1318. In: England and Scotland at War, c.1296-c.1513. Brill, Leiden, pp. 157-182</ref> However, alongside this burgeoning national identity, a shared border identity also emerged, rooted in the unique cultural and legal practices of the region.<ref>Neville, Cynthia. (2008). "Arbitration and Anglo-Scottish Border Law." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, 39. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. {{ISBN|978-1-84383-374-1}}.</ref> This shared identity coexisted with a lingering sense of Otherness,<ref name="auto6">Ellis, Steven G. Region and Frontier in the English State: The English Far North, 1296–1603. Galway: National University of Ireland, Galway, 1995.</ref><ref name="auto16">Ellis, Steven G. "Civilizing Northumberland: Representations of Englishness in the Tudor State." The Journal of Historical Sociology, Volume 12, Issue 2, 1999, pp. 103–127. {{doi|10.1111/1467-6443.00083}}</ref> as the borders remained distinct from the centralised identities of both nations, shaped by their unique history and violent reputation, and the persistent influence of local loyalties.<ref name="auto">Prestwich, Michael, ed. Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles. Boydell & Brewer Ltd, Suffolk, 2008. {{ISBN|978-1-84383-406-9}}.</ref><ref name="auto16"/> This shared Border identity and feelings of Otherness persisted throughout the 16th century.<ref>Groundwater, Anna. "Renewing the Anglo-Scottish Frontier: Reassessing Early Modern Frontier Societies." In Frontier and Border Regions in Early Modern Europe, edited by Steven G. Ellis and Raingard Esser, 23-25</ref>

====Disputed territory====
Efforts to define the Anglo-Scottish border often proved contentious and inconclusive. By 1245, territorial disputes remained unresolved, as demonstrated in a case involving Hugh de Bolbec, a Northumbrian knight.<ref name="Robb, Graham 2021. p23">Robb, Graham. The Debatable Land: The Lost World Between Scotland and England. W. W. Norton & Company, 2021., p23</ref> A meeting near Carham on the Tweed attempted to establish "the true and ancient marches between the two kingdoms". Six knights from each side were appointed to walk the border line, but the Scottish and English representatives disagreed at every step.<ref name="Robb, Graham 2021. p23"/> A second attempt expanded the parties to twelve knights per side, with additional servants and men-at-arms processing through the Tweed Valley, but it too ended without agreement.<ref name="auto21"/><ref name="auto23"/>

A third effort involved 48 knights, who swore an oath to trace the border. The English knights proposed a line running from the confluence of Reddenburn and the Tweed, south to Tres Karras and Hopperichlawe (now lost), and then to Whitelaw Hill in the Cheviot Hills. However, the Scottish knights opposed this perambulation with threats, and tensions escalated. Lacking further resources to continue, the English knights unilaterally declared the defined line to be "the true and ancient marches and divisions", despite the lack of mutual agreement.<ref name="Robb, Graham 2021. p23"/>

[[File:Debatable Map.png|thumb|Anglo-Scottish Borderland: (De)batable Land and threiplands]]

Throughout the period, various territories remained disputed due to unresolved claims, particularly lands referred to as ''threiplands'' ([[Scots (language)|Scots]] for "disputed lands").<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dsl.ac.uk/entry/snd/threap|title=Dictionaries of the Scots Language:: SND :: threap}}</ref> There were five such lesser threiplands alongside the larger and more notorious [[Debatable Lands|Debatable Land]],<ref>Ellis, Steven G. Tudor Frontiers and Noble Power: The Making of the British State. Oxford University Press, 1995, pp27-28</ref> as illustrated in the accompanying image. The Debatable Land was an expansive area, which lay between the rivers [[River Esk (Solway Firth)|Esk]] and [[River Sark|Sark]], was the subject of contention until 1552, when its status was finally settled.<ref name="auto23"/><ref name="auto21"/><ref>Todd, John M. (2006). "The West March on the Anglo-Scottish Border in the Twelfth Century, and the Origins of the Western Debatable Land." Northern History, 43(1), University of Leeds., pp19</ref> Originally referred to as the "Batable Land"—a term derived from its use as fertile grazing ground—the territory was notable for an agreement allowing both English and Scottish borderers to graze cattle during the day, despite prohibitions on permanent settlement.<ref name="auto21"/><ref name="Robb, Graham 2021. p23"/><ref name="auto23"/>

[[Berwick-upon-Tweed]], a strategically important town on the Anglo-Scottish border, changed hands multiple times during the medieval period, reflecting its contested status between England and Scotland. The town was alternately controlled by each kingdom, with significant captures in 1174, 1296, and 1318, among others. Its turbulent history culminated in 1482 when it was seized by Richard, Duke of Gloucester (later Richard III), and thereafter remained under English administration. Berwick's frequent exchanges highlight its role as both a prize of war and a continued focal point of Anglo-Scottish tensions.<ref>Porter, Linda. Crown of Thistles: The Fatal Inheritance of Mary, Queen of Scots. Pan Macmillan, London, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-230-75321-1}}.</ref>

The Anglo-Scottish border was not fully demarcated until the mid-19th century, when the [[Ordnance Survey]] mapped the area in detail. Even as late as this period, some lands, such as Kirkholm Common, were still considered by locals to be threipland. Locals regarded it as shared communal ground, with its historical status as contested land lingering in local tradition.<ref>Anon. The Land of Scott, or Abbotsford, the Country of the Tweed and its Tributaries and St Mary's Loch. Adam & Charles Black, Edinburgh, 1856.</ref>

Other disputed areas were resolved through less formal means. The Ba Green (or Ba' Green or Ball Green) near [[Wark on Tweed|Wark]] and [[Coldstream]], a Scottish tract of land that curiously lies on the English side of the [[River Tweed]], is one such example. This threipland became the subject of an annual game of football, whose result determined temporary control of the land. Over time, Coldstream's growing population allowed it to field far more players than Wark, leading to the land being informally absorbed into Scotland.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.scottishdailyexpress.co.uk/lifestyle/tiny-part-scotland-thats-in-32959342 | title=The tiny part of Scotland that's 'in England' thanks to medieval football match | date=4 June 2024 }}</ref><ref>Moffat, Alistair. The Reivers: The Story of the Border Reivers. Birlinn, 2011., pp89</ref>

==== Overlapping powers: judicial, religious, and secular authority ====
[[File:Northern England in Late Medieval Period.png|thumb|Map of the complex overlying secular and religious powers in the late medieval period Northumberland]]
The Anglo-Scottish Borders were marked by overlapping systems of administration and law, creating a patchwork of competing jurisdictions.<ref>Neville, Cynthia J. ''Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages''. Edinburgh University Press, 1998, p. 174-175.</ref> On the English side, noble families, ecclesiastical authorities, and state officials held varying degrees of power, often clashing over jurisdiction. Secular [[liberty (division)|liberties]] like [[Tynedale]] and [[Redesdale]] operated semi-independently, granting local lords significant autonomy to enforce laws and defend their territories. Robert de [[Umfraville]], also known as "Robert-with-the-Beard," was granted the newly established Liberty of Redesdale in [[1075]], replacing the former [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglian]] lord, Mildraed.<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989., pp4</ref> The Liberty of Tynedale, created in [[1157]],<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989., pp5</ref> was governed by the [[monarch of Scotland]] as a [[fief]] of England<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers, 1989., pp6</ref> until death of [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]], when it reverted to English rule.<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-85976-246-5}}. pp17</ref> The liberties were first incorporated into the shire of [[Northumberland]] during the reign of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and were later abolished entirely under [[Henry VIII]].<ref>"The Destruction of the Liberties: Some Further Evidence." Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, vol. 54, no. 130, Nov. 1981, pp. 150</ref>

To note, [[Liddesdale]], established in the late 12th century,<ref>Scott, J.G. "The Partition of a Kingdom: Strathclyde 1092–1153." Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Series III, Vol. 72, 1997, pp.33</ref> was a rarity on the Scottish side, functioning effectively as a secular liberty, with its own keeper who, ''ex officio'', also held the position of Captain of [[Hermitage Castle]].<ref>Robson, Ralph. The English Highland Clans: Tudor Responses to a Mediaeval Problem. Edinburgh: John Donald, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0-85976-246-5}}. pp72-73</ref>

Religious influence was prominent in the liberty of [[Hexhamshire]], governed by the [[Archbishops of York]],<ref>Ellis, Steven G. "Region and Frontier in the English State: The English Far North, 1296–1603." In Frontiers, Regions and Identities in Europe, edited by Steven G. Ellis and Raingard Esser, 84. Pisa: Pisa University Press, 2009.</ref> and in the [[County Palatine of Durham]] (which included the exclaves of [[Norhamshire]] and [[Islandshire]] on the frontier), ruled by the [[Prince Bishops]], who held powers comparable to those of a king,<ref>Stringer, Keith. (2008). "States, Liberties and Communities in Medieval Britain and Ireland (c.1100–1400)." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, 14-15. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.</ref> including raising armies and collecting taxes. The religious liberties fiercely resisted the encroachment of secular lawmen into their jurisdictions.<ref>Neville, Cynthia J. ''Violence, Custom and Law: The Anglo-Scottish Border Lands in the Later Middle Ages''. Edinburgh University Press, 1998, p. 175.</ref>

[[File:Anglo-Scottish Marches v1.png|thumb|Anglo-Scottish Marches]]
The [[Earls of Northumberland]], based in [[Alnwick]], were another major force, holding substantial military and administrative influence over northern England.<ref name="auto24">Armstrong, Jackson W. Local Society and the Defence of the English Frontier in Fifteenth-Century Scotland: The War Measures of 1482. ''The Scottish Historical Review'', Volume 87, Issue 2, October 2008, pp. 153–176.</ref> The legal framework of the region was equally fragmented, with [[March law]] addressing cross-border disputes and raids,{{sfn|Neville|1998|p=5}} while state law and ecclesiastical law functioned in parallel. The Liberties, both religious and secular, were repeatedly accused of being havens for outlaws.<ref>Neville, C. J. "The Law of Treason in the English Border Counties in the Later Middle Ages." Law and History Review, vol. 9, no. 1, 1991, pp. 1–30. {{doi|10.2307/743658}} pp. 1–2</ref> Disputes often arose between [[Lord Warden of the Marches|Wardens of the Marches]], Keepers of the liberties, and local sheriffs, reflecting the constant struggle to impose order in this turbulent region.{{sfn|Neville|1998}}

While both England and Scotland had overlapping jurisdictions, Scottish regalities generally lacked the level of autonomy seen in English liberties.<ref>Armstrong, Jackson W. Local Society and the Defence of the English Frontier in Fifteenth-Century Scotland: The War Measures of 1482. The Scottish Historical Review, Volume 87, Issue 2, October 2008, pp. 153–176</ref> This difference arose because England had a more centralised system of governance, whereas Scotland's rule was more fragmented, with local polities retaining greater independence.<ref>Stringer, Keith. (2008). "States, Liberties and Communities in Medieval Britain and Ireland (c.1100–1400)." In Liberties and Identities in the Medieval British Isles, edited by Michael C. Prestwich, 16. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.</ref> Despite these differences, both nations faced persistent challenges in governing the borderlands, where local power dynamics frequently overruled central authority.<ref name="auto8"/>