Editing Cardinal virtues (section)

== Antiquity ==
{{Platonism}}
The four cardinal virtues appeared as a group (sometimes included in larger lists) long before they were given this title.

=== Hellenistic philosophy ===
Plato associated the four cardinal virtues with the social classes of the ideal city described in ''The Republic'', and with the faculties of humanity. Plato narrates a discussion of the character of a good city where the following is agreed upon:

{{Blockquote|Clearly, then, it will be wise, brave, temperate [literally: healthy-minded], and just.
|427e;<ref>{{Cite book |last=Plato |title=The Republic of Plato: with an English translation by Paul Shorey |title-link=Republic (Plato) |date=1937 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]; [[William Heinemann Ltd.]] |isbn=<!-- none found --> |edition=Revised and Reprinted |series=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |volume=1<!-- L237 is newer edition by Emlyn-Jones and Preddy, not Shorey)--> |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]; [[London]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/republicshorey01platuoft/page/346/mode/2up 347] |translator-last=Shorey |translator-first=Paul |lccn=a44004515 <!-- Vol. 1. unk83017287, Vol. 2. a44004515 --> |oclc=669777366 |ol=OL20425902M <!-- Vol. 1. OL20425902M, Vol. 2. non found --> |id={{Internet Archive|republicshorey01platuoft}} |quote=Clearly, then, it will be wise, brave, sober, and just. |author-link=Plato |orig-date=1930 |translator-link=Paul Shorey}}</ref> see also 435b}}

''Temperance''{{efn|[[Cicero]] and Plato sometimes preferred the word [[Sophrosyne|{{Transliteration|grc|sōphrosynē}}]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Strauch|first=E.H.|title=Beyond Literary Theory: Literature as a Search for the Meaning of Human Destiny|location=[[Lanham, Maryland]]|publisher=[[University Press of America]]|year=2001|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wo7FP1Uq2kcC&pg=PA166 166] }}</ref>}} was most closely associated with the producing classes, the farmers and craftsmen, to moderate their animal appetites. ''Fortitude'' was assigned to the warrior class, to strengthen their fighting spirit. ''Prudence'' was assigned to the rulers, to guide their reason. ''Justice'' stood above these three to properly regulate the relations among them.

Plato sometimes{{efn|e.g., ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]'' 349b; cf. 324e, 329c, 330b, 331a-c.}} lists holiness ({{Transliteration|grc|hosiotes}}, {{Transliteration|grc|[[eusebeia]]}}, {{Transliteration|grc|aidos}}) amongst the cardinal virtues. He especially associates holiness with justice, but leaves their precise relationship unexplained.

In Aristotle's ''[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]]'', we read:

{{Blockquote|The forms of Virtue are justice, courage, temperance, magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, wisdom.
|''Rhetoric'' 1366b1<ref>{{cite web |author=Aristotle |title=Rhetoric Book I - Chapter 9 |url=https://kairos.technorhetoric.net/stasis/2017/honeycutt/aristotle/rhet1-9.html}}</ref>}}

These are expounded fully in the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' III.6-V.2.

[[Philo|Philo of Alexandria]], a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, also recognized the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, courage, and justice. In his writings, he states:

{{Blockquote|text=In these words Moses intends to sketch out the particular virtues. And they also are four in number, prudence, temperance, courage, and justice.|author=Philo|title=''[[Philo's Works]]''|source=Allegorical Interpretation 1.XIX<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philo: Works of Philo Judaeus |website= Christian Classics Ethereal Library |url=https://ccel.org/ccel/philo/works/works.iii.ii.html#iii.ii-p22.3 |access-date=2022-12-20 }}</ref>}}

These virtues, according to Philo, serve as guiding principles for a virtuous and fulfilling life.

=== Roman philosophy ===
The Roman philosopher and statesman [[Cicero]] (106-43 BC), like Plato, limits the list to four virtues:

{{Blockquote|Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind ({{lang|la|animi}}) in harmony with reason and the order of nature. It has four parts: wisdom ({{lang|la|prudentiam}}), justice, courage, temperance.
|''[[De Inventione]]'', II, LIII{{efn|Nam virtus est animi habitus naturae modo atque rationi consentaneus. … Habet igitur partes quattuor: prudentiam, iustitiam, fortitudinem, temperantiam.}}<ref>{{Cite web |author=Cicero|title=de Inventione II |url=https://thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110144829/http://thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#159 |archive-date=2021-01-10 |access-date=2014-01-17 |website=The Latin Library}}</ref>}}

Cicero discusses these further in ''[[De Officiis]]'' (I, V, and following).

[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] writes in {{lang|la|[[Seneca's Consolations|Consolatio ad Helviam Matrem]]}} about justice ({{lang|la|iustitia}} from [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|δικαιοσύνη}}), self-control ({{lang|la|continentia}} from Ancient Greek {{lang|grc|σωφροσύνη}}),  practical wisdom ({{lang|la|prudentia}} from Ancient Greek {{lang|grc|φρόνησις}}) and devotion ({{lang|la|[[pietas]]}}) instead of courage ({{lang|la|fortitudo}} from Ancient Greek {{lang|grc|ἀνδρεία}}).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Seneca. La "Consolatio ad Helviam matrem" con un'antologia di testi |author=Seneca |date=2004 |publisher=Carocci |translator-last=Cotrozzi |translator-first=Annamaria |page=76 |language=it}}</ref>

The Roman Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] discusses these in Book V:12 of ''[[Meditations]]'' and views them as the "goods" that a person should identify in one's own mind, as opposed to "wealth or things which conduce to luxury or prestige".<ref>{{Cite book |author=Marcus Aurelius |title=Meditations |date=1976 |publisher=Penguin Classics|translator-first=Maxwell|translator-last=Staniforth |page=83 |url=https://archive.org/details/meditations0000marc_g6h3/page/82/mode/2up}}</ref>

Suggestions of the [[Stoic virtues]] can be found in fragments in the [[Diogenes Laertius]] and [[Stobaeus]].

The Platonist view of the four cardinal virtues is described in ''[[Definitions (Plato)|Definitions]]''.

'''Practical wisdom''' or prudence ({{transliteration|grc|phrónēsis}}) is the perspicacity necessary to conduct personal business and affairs of state. It encompasses the skill to distinguish the beneficial from the detrimental, to understand the attainment of happiness, and to discern the right course of action in every situation. Its antithesis or opposite is the vice of folly.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Definitions|title=Works of Plato|volume=VI|url=https://archive.org/details/WorksOfPlatoV6|series=Bohn's Classical Library |location=London|publisher=[[Henry George Bohn|H. G. Bohn]]|year=1854|editor-first=George|editor-last=Burges|editor-link=George Burges|page=[https://archive.org/details/WorksOfPlatoV6/page/126/mode/1up 126]}}</ref>

'''Justice''' ({{transliteration|grc|dikaiosunê}}) is the harmonious alignment of one's inner self and the comprehensive integrity of the soul. It involves fostering sound discipline within each facet of our being, enabling us to live with others and extend the same regard to every individual. Additionally, justice pertains to a state's aptitude to equitably allocate resources based on individuals' deservingness, as determined by their merits. It entails refraining from undue harshness, fostering a universal perception of fairness. Furthermore, it entails embodying the qualities of a law-abiding citizen or member of society, upholding principles of social equality. Justice encompasses the formulation of laws that can be substantiated by valid justifications, leading to a society where actions align with these laws.

Moderation or '''temperance''' ({{transliteration|grc|sôphrosunê}}) is the capacity to temper the indulgence of desires and sensory pleasures within the bounds of what is customary for the individual, aligning only with experiences already familiar to the soul. It encompasses achieving a harmonious equilibrium and exercising disciplined control when it comes to overall pleasure and pain, ensuring that they remain within normal ranges. Moreover, moderation involves cultivating a harmonious relationship and a balanced rule between the soul's governing and being governed aspects. It signifies maintaining a state of natural self-reliance and exercising proper discipline as and when required by the soul. Rational consensus within the soul is essential concerning what merits admiration and what warrants disdain. This approach entails deliberate caution in one's choices, as one's selection navigates between the extremes.

'''Courage''' ({{transliteration|grc|andreia}}) can be defined as the ability to conquer fear within oneself when action is necessary. It encompasses military confidence, a deep understanding of warfare, and maintaining unwavering beliefs in the face of challenges. It involves self-discipline to overcome fear, obeying wisdom, and facing death boldly. Courage also entails maintaining sound judgment in tough situations, countering hostility, upholding virtues, remaining composed when faced with frightening (or encouraging) discussions and events, and not becoming discouraged. It reflects valuing the rule of law in our daily lives rather than diminishing its importance.

=== In the Bible ===
==== In the Old Testament ====
The cardinal virtues are listed in the [[Deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical book]] {{Bibleverse|Wisdom of Solomon|8:7}}, which reads:

{{Blockquote|She [Wisdom] teaches temperance, and prudence, and justice, and fortitude, which are such things as men can have nothing more profitable in life.}}

They are also found in other non-canonical scriptures like {{Bibleverse|4 Maccabees|1:18–19}}, which relates:

{{Blockquote|Now the kinds of wisdom are right judgment, justice, courage, and self-control. Right judgment is supreme over all of these since by means of it reason rules over the emotions.}}

==== In the New Testament ====

[[Wisdom]], usually {{transliteration|grc|[[Sophia (wisdom)|sophia]]}}, rather than Prudence ({{transliteration|grc|phrónēsis}}), is discussed extensively in all parts of the [[New Testament]]. It is a major topic of [[1 Corinthians 2]], where the author discusses how divine teaching and power are greater than worldly wisdom.

[[Justice (virtue)|Justice]] ({{lang|grc|δικαιοσύνη}}, {{Transliteration|grc|dikaiosýnē}}) is taught in the gospels, where most translators give it as "righteousness".

Plato's word for [[Courage|Fortitude]] ({{lang|grc|ἀνδρεία}}) is not present in the New Testament, but the virtues of steadfastness ({{lang|grc|ὑπομονή}}, {{Transliteration|grc|hypomonē}}) and patient endurance ({{lang|grc|μακροθυμία}}, {{Transliteration|grc|makrothymia}}) are praised. Paul exhorts believers to "act like men" ({{lang|grc|ἀνδρίζομαι}}, {{Transliteration|grc|andrizomai}}, {{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|16:13}}).

[[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]] ({{lang|grc|σωφροσύνη}}, [[Sophrosyne|{{Transliteration|grc|sōphrosýnē}}]]), usually translated "sobriety," is present in the New Testament, along with self-control ({{lang|grc|ἐγκράτεια}}, {{Transliteration|grc|egkrateia}}).<ref>{{cite book|last=Plummer|first=Alfred|editor-first=W. Robertson|editor-last=Nicoll|title=The Expositor's Bible: The Pastoral Epistles|chapter=The Meaning and Value of Sobermindedness - The Use and Abuse of Religious Emotion|volume=44|location=London|publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]]|date=1888|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JgVFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA241 241-242]}}</ref>