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===Middle Ages and Renaissance=== [[File:T and O map Guntherus Ziner 1472.jpg|thumb|left|Copy (1472) of [[Isidore of Seville|St. Isidore's]] [[TO map]] of the world.]] {{lang|la|[[Mappa mundi|Mappae mundi]]}} ('maps of the world') are the medieval European maps of the world. About 1,100 of these are known to have survived: of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts, and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents.<ref>Woodward, p. 286 {{citation needed|reason=incomplete|date=July 2011}}</ref> [[File:Tabula Rogeriana 1929 copy by Konrad Miller.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]'', drawn by [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] for [[Roger II of Sicily]] in 1154. South is at the top.]] The [[Geography in medieval Islam|Arab geographer]] [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] produced his medieval atlas ''[[Tabula Rogeriana]] (Book of Roger)'' in 1154. By combining the knowledge of [[Africa]], the [[Indian Ocean]], [[Europe]], and the [[Far East]] (which he learned through contemporary accounts from Arab merchants and explorers) with the information he inherited from the classical geographers, he was able to write detailed descriptions of a multitude of countries. Along with the substantial text he had written, he created a world map influenced mostly by the Ptolemaic conception of the world, but with significant influence from multiple Arab geographers. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries.<ref name=Scott>{{cite book|first=S. P. |last=Scott |date=1904 |title=History of the Moorish Empire |pages=461–462}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Idrisi. |publisher=Encyclopedia of World Biography |access-date=27 Jul 2018 |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/ |archive-date=28 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180128123037/http://encyclopedia.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The map was divided into seven [[Climate|climatic]] zones, with detailed descriptions of each zone. As part of this work, a smaller, circular map depicting the south on top and Arabia in the center was made. Al-Idrisi also made an estimate of the circumference of the world, accurate to within 10%.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parry |first=James |date=January 2004 |title=Mapping Arabia |url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200401/mapping.arabia.htm |journal=Saudi Aramco World |volume=55 |pages=20–37 |access-date=2018-07-27 |archive-date=2018-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727114915/http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200401/mapping.arabia.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Europe As A Queen Sebastian Munster 1570.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Europa regina]]'' in [[Sebastian Münster]]'s "''[[Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster)|Cosmographia]]''", 1570]] In the [[Age of Discovery]], from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new [[surveying]] techniques. The invention of the [[magnetic compass]], [[telescope]] and [[sextant]] enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, [[Martin Behaim]], a German cartographer and advisor to the king [[John II of Portugal]], made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmillgtm.html |title=Globes and Terrain Models – Geography and Maps: An Illustrated Guide |website=[[Library of Congress]] |access-date=2017-12-29 |archive-date=2017-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216062424/http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmillgtm.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1507, [[Martin Waldseemüller]] produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (''[[Universalis Cosmographia]]'') bearing the first use of the name "America." [[Portugal|Portuguese]] cartographer [[Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)|Diogo Ribero]] was the author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527). [[Italy|Italian]] cartographer [[Battista Agnese]] produced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts. [[Johannes Werner]] refined and promoted the [[Werner projection]]. This was an equal-area, heart-shaped world map projection (generally called a cordiform projection) that was used in the 16th and 17th centuries. Over time, other iterations of this map type arose; most notable are the [[sinusoidal projection]] and the [[Bonne projection]]. The Werner projection places its standard parallel at the North Pole; a sinusoidal projection places its standard parallel at the equator; and the Bonne projection is intermediate between the two.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Henry |last=Bottomley |title=Between the Sinusoidal projection and the Werner: an alternative to the Bonne |journal=Cybergeo: European Journal of Geography |volume=241 |date=13 June 2003 |access-date=27 July 2018 |url=http://journals.openedition.org/cybergeo/3977 |doi=10.4000/cybergeo.3977 |doi-access=free |archive-date=27 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727115136/https://journals.openedition.org/cybergeo/3977 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V3_Pt1/HOC_VOLUME3_Part1_chapter10.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204061312/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/books/HOC/HOC_V3_Pt1/HOC_VOLUME3_Part1_chapter10.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-04 |url-status=live |title=Map Projections in the Renaissance |last=Snyder |first=John |date=2007-09-01 |website=[[University of Chicago Press]]}}</ref> In 1569, mapmaker [[Gerardus Mercator]] first published [[Mercator 1569 world map|a map]] based on his [[Mercator projection]], which uses equally-spaced parallel vertical lines of longitude and parallel latitude lines spaced farther apart as they get farther away from the equator. By this construction, courses of constant bearing are conveniently represented as straight lines for navigation. The same property limits its value as a general-purpose world map because regions are shown as increasingly larger than they actually are the further from the equator they are. Mercator is also credited as the first to use the word "atlas" to describe a collection of maps. In the later years of his life, Mercator resolved to create his Atlas, a book filled with many maps of different regions of the world, as well as a chronological history of the world from the Earth's creation by God until 1568. He was unable to complete it to his satisfaction before he died. Still, some additions were made to the Atlas after his death, and new editions were published after his death.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Mercator-projection |title=Mercator Projection |last=Britannica |first=Encyclopedia |date=2018-01-25 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=2018-07-27 |archive-date=2018-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727085753/https://www.britannica.com/science/Mercator-projection |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gerardus-Mercator |title=Gerardus Mercator |last=Britannica |first=Encyclopedia |date=2018-02-26 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=2018-07-27 |archive-date=2019-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327074515/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gerardus-Mercator |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1570, the [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabantian]] cartographer [[Abraham Ortelius]], strongly encouraged by [[Gillis Hooftman]], created the first true modern atlas, ''[[Theatrum Orbis Terrarum]].''<ref>{{cite web |title=Gillis Hooftman: Businessman and Patron |publisher=[[KU Leuven]] |first=Katrien |last=Derde |access-date=2023-10-11 |df=dmy-all |url=https://www.netpoint.be/abc/castro/en/n_29.htm |archive-date=2023-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101233515/https://www.netpoint.be/abc/castro/en/n_29.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In a rare move, Ortelius credited mapmakers who contributed to the atlas, the list of which grew to 183 individuals by 1603.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = The Map and the Development of the History of Cartography|volume = 1|editor = J.B. Harley & David Woodward|last = Harley|first = J.B.|page = 11|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}}</ref> In the [[Renaissance]], maps were used to impress viewers and establish the owner's reputation as sophisticated, educated, and worldly. Because of this, towards the end of the Renaissance, maps were displayed with equal importance of painting, sculptures, and other pieces of art.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carlton |first=Genevieve |date=2011 |title=Worldly Consumer: The Demand for Maps in Renaissance Italy |journal=[[Imago Mundi]] |volume=63 |pages=123–126}}</ref> In the sixteenth century, maps were becoming increasingly available to consumers through the introduction of printmaking, with about 10% of Venetian homes having some sort of map by the late 1500s. There were three main functions of maps in the Renaissance:<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Woodward |first=David |title=Cartography and the Renaissance: Continuity and Change |journal=[[The History of Cartography]] |volume=3 |pages=3–24}}</ref> * General descriptions of the world * Navigation and wayfinding * Land surveying and property management In medieval times, written directions of how to get somewhere were more common than the use of maps. With the Renaissance, cartography began to be seen as a metaphor for power.<ref name=":0" /> Political leaders could lay claim to territories through the use of maps, and this was greatly aided by the religious and colonial expansion of Europe. The Holy Land and other religious places were the most commonly mapped during the Renaissance. In the late 1400s to the late 1500s, Rome, Florence, and Venice dominated map-making and trade. It started in Florence in the mid-to late 1400s. Map trade quickly shifted to Rome and Venice but then was overtaken by atlas makers in the late 16th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Woodward |first=David |title=The Italian Map Trade: 1480-1650 |journal=[[The History of Cartography]] |volume=3 |pages=773–790}}</ref> Map publishing in Venice was completed with humanities and book publishing in mind, rather than just informational use. ====Printing technology==== There were two main printmaking technologies in the Renaissance: [[woodcut]] and [[Intaglio (printmaking)|copper-plate intaglio]], referring to the medium used to transfer the image onto paper. In woodcut, the map image is created as a relief chiseled from medium-grain hardwood. The areas intended to be printed are inked and pressed against the sheet. Being raised from the rest of the block, the map lines cause indentations in the paper that can often be felt on the back of the map. There are advantages to using relief to make maps. For one, a printmaker doesn't need a press because the maps could be developed as rubbings. Woodblock is durable enough to be used many times before defects appear. Existing printing presses can be used to create the prints rather than having to create a new one. On the other hand, it is hard to achieve fine detail with the relief technique. Inconsistencies in linework are more apparent in woodcut than in intaglio. To improve quality in the late fifteenth century, a style of relief craftsmanship developed using fine chisels to carve the wood, rather than the more commonly used knife. In intaglio, lines are engraved into workable metals, typically copper but sometimes brass. The engraver spreads a thin sheet of wax over the metal plate and uses ink to draw the details. Then, the engraver traces the lines with a stylus to etch them into the plate beneath.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Delano-Smith |first=Catherine |date=2005 |title=Stamped Signs on Manuscripts Maps in the Renaissance |journal=[[Imago Mundi]] |volume=57 |pages=59–62 |doi=10.1080/0308569042000289842 |s2cid=140557612}}</ref> The engraver can also use styli to prick holes along the drawn lines, trace along them with colored chalk, and then engrave the map. Lines going in the same direction are carved at the same time, and then the plate is turned to carve lines going in a different direction. To print from the finished plate, ink is spread over the metal surface and scraped off such that it remains only in the etched channels. Then the plate is pressed forcibly against the paper so that the ink in the channels is transferred to the paper. The pressing is so forceful that it leaves a "plate mark" around the border of the map at the edge of the plate, within which the paper is depressed compared to the margins.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Woodward |first=David |title=Techniques of Map Engraving, Printing, and Coloring in the European Renaissance |journal=[[The History of Cartography]] |volume=3 |pages=591–610}}</ref> Copper and other metals were expensive at the time, so the plate was often reused for new maps or melted down for other purposes.<ref name=":2" /> Whether woodcut or intaglio, the printed map is hung out to dry. Once dry, it is usually placed in another press to flatten the paper. Any type of paper that was available at the time could be used to print the map, but thicker paper was more durable. Both relief and intaglio were used about equally by the end of the fifteenth century. ====Lettering==== Lettering in mapmaking is important for denoting information. Fine lettering is difficult in woodcut, where it often turned out square and blocky, contrary to the stylized, rounded writing style popular in Italy at the time.<ref name=":2" /> To improve quality, mapmakers developed fine chisels to carve the relief. Intaglio lettering did not suffer the troubles of a coarse medium and so was able to express the looping cursive that came to be known as [[Italic script|cancellaresca]].<ref name=":2" /> There were custom-made reverse punches that were also used in metal engraving alongside freehand lettering.<ref name=":1" /> ====Color==== {{Main|Map coloring}} The first use of color in map-making cannot be narrowed down to one reason. There are arguments that color started as a way to indicate information on the map, with aesthetics coming second. There are also arguments that color was first used on maps for aesthetics but then evolved into conveying information.<ref name=":2" /> Either way, many maps of the Renaissance left the publisher without being colored, a practice that continued all the way into the 1800s. However, most publishers accepted orders from their patrons to have their maps or atlases colored if they wished. Because all coloring was done by hand, the patron could request simple, cheap color, or more expensive, elaborate color, even going so far as silver or gold gilding. The simplest coloring was merely outlines, such as of borders and along rivers. Wash color meant painting regions with inks or watercolors. Limning meant adding silver and gold leaf to the map to illuminate lettering, heraldic arms, or other decorative elements.
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