Editing Cheyenne (section)

==History==
[[File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 084.jpg|thumb|Cheyenne woman photograph by [[Edward S. Curtis]], 1930]]
The earliest written record of the Cheyenne was in the mid-17th century, when a group of Cheyenne visited the [[France in the early modern period|French]] [[Fort Crevecoeur]], near present-day [[Peoria, Illinois]]. The Cheyenne at this time lived between the [[Mississippi River]] and [[Mille Lacs Lake]]. Their economy was based on the collection of [[wild rice]] and hunting, especially of [[bison]], which lived in the prairies 70 to 80 miles west of the Cheyenne villages.<ref>Moore, John H. ''The Cheyenne.'' Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Co., 1999, pp. 15–16</ref>

According to tribal history, during the 17th century, the Cheyenne were driven by the [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]] (Hóheeheo'o) from the [[Great Lakes]] region to present-day [[Minnesota]] and [[North Dakota]], where they established villages. The most prominent of the ancient Cheyenne villages is [[Biesterfeldt Site|Biesterfeldt Village]], in eastern North Dakota along the [[Sheyenne River]]. They first reached the [[Missouri River]] in 1676.<ref>Grinnell, ''The Fighting Cheyenne'', pp. 1–8.</ref> A more recent analysis of early records posits that at least some of the Cheyenne remained in the Mille Lac region of Minnesota until about 1765, when the [[Ojibwe]] defeated the [[Dakota people|Dakota]] with firearms — pushing the Cheyenne, in turn, to the Minnesota River, where they were reported in 1766.<ref>Moore, John H. ''The Cheyenne.'' Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Co., 1999, p. 18</ref>

On the Missouri River, the Cheyenne came into contact with the neighboring [[Mandan]], [[Hidatsa]] (Tsé-heše'émâheónese, "people who have [[earth lodge|soil houses]]"), and [[Arikara]] people (Ónoneo'o), adopting many of their cultural characteristics. They were first of the later Plains tribes to move into the [[Black Hills]] and [[Powder River Country]]. About 1730, they introduced the horse to [[Lakota people|Lakota]] bands (Ho'óhomo'eo'o). Conflict with migrating Lakota and Ojibwe people forced the Cheyenne further west, and they, in turn, pushed the [[Kiowa]] to the south.<ref name="cheyenne">{{Cite web| last =Liberty | first =Dr. Margot | url= http://www.friendslittlebighorn.com/cheyenneprimacy.htm| title = Cheyenne Primacy: The Tribes' Perspective As Opposed To That Of The United States Army; A Possible Alternative To "The Great Sioux War Of 1876| publisher = Friends of the Little Bighorn| access-date = 13 January 2008}}</ref>

By 1776, the Lakota had overwhelmed the Cheyenne and taken over much of their territory near the [[Black Hills]]. In 1804, [[Lewis and Clark Expedition|Lewis and Clark]] visited a surviving Cheyenne village in what is now North Dakota. Such European explorers learned many different names for the Cheyenne and did not realize how the different sections were forming a unified tribe.<ref name="cheyenne"/>

The Cheyenne tribes today descend from two related tribes, the ''Tsétsėhéstȧhese / Tsitsistas'' (Cheyenne proper) and ''Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o'' (better known as Suhtai or Sutaio). The latter merged with the Tsétshéstȧhese in the mid-19th century. Their [[oral tradition|oral history]] relays that both tribal peoples are characterized, and represented by two [[cultural hero]]es or [[prophet]]s who received divine articles from their god Ma'heo'o, whom the Só'taeo'o called He'emo.

The Tsétsėhéstȧhese / Tsitsistas prophet Motsé'eóeve (Sweet Medicine Standing, Sweet Root Standing, commonly called Sweet Medicine) received the ''Maahótse'' ([[Sacred bundle|(Sacred) Arrows Bundle]]) at ''Nóávóse'' (″medicine(sacred)-hill″, name for [[Bear Butte]], northwest of Rapid City, South Dakota,<ref>Not to be confused with the Bear Butte, near Fort Meade, South Dakota, which was called Náhkȯhévose ("bear hill")</ref> which they carried when they waged tribal-level war<ref name="cheyenne"/><ref>Hyde, George E.: ''Life of George Bent. Written From His Letters''. Norman, 1987. Pp. 24 and 49.</ref><ref>Grinnell, George Bird: "The Great Mysteries of the Cheyenne." ''American Anthropologist''. New Series, Vol. 12, No. 4 (Oct. – Dec. 1910): 542–575, p. 556.</ref> and were kept in the ''maahéome'' (Arrow Lodge or Arrow Tepee). He organized the structure of Cheyenne society, their [[Cheyenne military societies|military or war societies]] led by prominent warriors, their system of legal justice, and the [[Council of Forty-four]] peace chiefs. The latter was formed from four ''véhoo'o'' (chiefs or leaders) of the ten principal ''manaho'' ([[Tribe (Native American)|bands]]) and an additional four ″Old Man″ meetings to deliberate at regular tribal gatherings, centered around the [[Sun Dance]].<ref name=ohs/>

Sweet Medicine is the Cheyenne prophet who predicted the coming of the horse, the cow, the white man, and other new things to the Cheyenne. He was named for ''motsé'eonȯtse'' ([[sweet grass (disambiguation)|sweetgrass]]), one of the sacred plant medicines used by many [[Plains Indians|Plains peoples]] in ceremonies.
The ''Maahótse'' (Sacred Arrows) are symbols of [[male]] power. The ''Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e'' (Sacred Buffalo Hat) is the symbol of [[female]] power. The Sacred Buffalo Hat and the Sacred Arrows together form the two great covenants of the Cheyenne Nation. Through these two bundles, Ma'heo'o assures continual life and blessings for the people.
{{clear}}

The Só'taeo'o prophet Tomȯsévėséhe ("Erect Horns") received the ''Ésevone'' (aka ''Is'siwun'' – "[[Sacred bundle|Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Bundle]]") at ''Tȯhóonévose'' (″Stone Hammer Mountain″) near the [[Great Lakes]] in the present state of Minnesota. The ''Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat)'' is kept in the ''vonȧhéome'' (old term) or ''hóhkėha'éome'' (new term) ("Sacred Hat Lodge, Sacred Hat Tepee"). Erect Horns gave them the accompanying ceremonies and the [[Sun Dance]]. His vision convinced the tribe to abandon their earlier sedentary agricultural traditions to adopt [[nomad]]ic Plains [[horse culture]]. They replaced their earth lodges with portable [[tipi]]s and switched their diet from fish and agricultural produce, to mainly [[bison]] and wild fruits and vegetables. Their lands ranged from the upper [[Missouri River]] into what is now [[Wyoming]], Montana, Colorado, and South Dakota.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

The ''Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e'' ("Sacred Buffalo Hat") is kept among the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Só'taeo'o. The ''Tséá'enōvȧhtse'' (″Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Keeper″ or ″Keeper of the Sacred (Buffalo) Hat″) must belong to the Só'taeo'o (Northern or Southern alike). In the 1870s tribal leaders became disenchanted with the keeper of the bundle demanded the keeper Broken Dish give up the bundle; he agreed but his wife did not and desecrated the Sacred Hat and its contents; a ceremonial pipe and a buffalo horn were lost. In 1908 a Cheyenne named Three Fingers gave the horn back to the Hat. The pipe came into possession of a Cheyenne named Burnt All Over who gave it to Hattie Goit of [[Poteau, Oklahoma]] who in 1911 gave the pipe to the Oklahoma Historical Society. In 1997 the Oklahoma Historal Society negotiated with the Northern Cheyenne to return the pipe to the tribal keeper of the Sacred Medicine Hat Bundle James Black Wolf.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19971126&id=Wi4vAAAAIBAJ&sjid=s6YFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4055,444089&hl=en Reading Eagle November 26, 1997]</ref>

===Expansion on the Plains===
[[File:George Catlin - Né-hee-ó-ee-wóo-tis, Wolf on the Hill, Chief of the Tribe - 1985.66.143 - Smithsonian American Art Museum.jpg|thumb|upright|Chief Wolf-on-the-Hill (Cheyenne), portrait by [[George Catlin]], 1832, in [[Fort Pierre, South Dakota]]]]
After being pushed south and westward by the Lakota, the Cheyenne began to establish new territory. Around 1811, the Cheyenne formally allied with the [[Arapaho people]] (Hetanevo'eo'o), which would remain strong throughout their history and into the present. The alliance helped the Cheyenne expand their territory that stretched from southern Montana, through most of Wyoming, the eastern half of Colorado, far western Nebraska, and far western Kansas. 

By 1820, American traders and explorers reported contact with Cheyenne at present-day [[Denver, Colorado]], and on the Arkansas River. The Cheyenne likely hunted and traded in Denver much earlier. They may have migrated to the south for winter. The Hairy Rope band is reputed to have been the first band to move south, capturing wild horses as far south as the [[Cimarron River (Arkansas River)|Cimarron River]] Valley.<ref>Berthrong, pp. 13–21</ref> In response to the construction of [[Bent's Fort]] by [[Charles Bent]], a non-Native trader and ally, a large portion of the tribe moved further south and stayed around the area.<ref>Berthrong, pp. 24–26</ref> The other part of the tribe continued to live along the headwaters of the North Platte and Yellowstone rivers. The groups became the Southern Cheyenne, or Sówoníă (Southerners), and the Northern Cheyenne, or O'mǐ'sǐs (Eaters). The two divisions maintained regular and close contact.

In the southern portion of their territory, the Cheyenne and Arapaho warred with the allied Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache. Numerous battles were fought including a notable fight along the Washita River in 1836 with the Kiowa which resulted in the death of 48 Cheyenne warriors of the Bowstring society.<ref>{{cite web|title=Battle of Wolf Creek |url=http://www.okhistory.org/sites/fswolfcreek |work=Oklahoma History |access-date=2013-02-09}}</ref> In summer 1838, many Cheyenne and Arapaho attacked a camp of Kiowa and Comanche along Wolf Creek in Oklahoma resulting in heavy losses from both sides. Among the losses were White Thunder (keeper of the Medicine Arrows and [[Owl Woman|Owl Woman's]] father), Flat-War-Club (Cheyenne), and Sleeping Wolf (Kiowa).<ref name="hyde-80">Hyde 1968, p. 80.</ref> 

Conflict with the Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache ended in 1840 when the tribes allied with each other. The new alliance allowed the Cheyenne to enter the [[Llano Estacado]] in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles and northeastern New Mexico to hunt bison and trade. Their expansion in the south and alliance with the Kiowa led to their first raid into [[Mexico]] in 1853. The raid ended in disaster with heavy resistance from Mexican lancers, resulting in all but three of the war party being killed. 

To the north, the Cheyenne allied with the Lakota, which allowed them to expand their territory into part of their former lands around the Black Hills. By heading into the Rocky Mountains, they managed to escape the 1837–39 smallpox epidemics that swept across the plains from white settlements but were greatly affected by the 1849 cholera epidemic. Contact with Euro-Americans was mostly light, with most contact involving mountain men, traders, explorers, treaty makers, and painters.

===Enemies and warrior culture===
{{see also|Cheyenne military societies}}
[[File:Ledger Drawing - Cheyenne warriors fighting Mexican Lancers.jpg|thumb|right|Ledger drawing by Hubble Big Horse showing a battle between Cheyenne warriors and Mexican lancers.]]
[[File:Ledger drawing - Cheyenne and Pawnee or Osage fight.jpg|thumb|Ledger drawing showing a battle between a Cheyenne warrior (right) and an Osage or Pawnee warrior (left).]]
[[File:Crow-Cheyenne-fight.jpg|thumb|Ledger drawing of a mounted Cheyenne warrior counting coup with lance on a dismounted Crow warrior.]]
[[File:Ledger Drawing - Cheyenne Crazy Dog Society Warrior.jpg|thumb|Ledger drawing of a Cheyenne warrior with [[pronghorn antelope|pronghorn]] horned headdress, symbol of the Crazy Dog Society.]]

Like many other Plains Indian nations, the Cheyenne were a [[horse culture|horse and warrior]] people who developed as skilled and powerful mounted warriors. A warrior in Cheyenne society is not a fighter but also a protector, provider, and leader. Warriors gained rank in Cheyenne society by performing and accumulating various acts of bravery in battle known as [[counting coup]]s. The title of war chief could be earned by any warrior who performs enough of the specific coups required to become a war chief. 

Specific [[Cheyenne military societies|warrior societies]] evolved. Each society had selected leaders who would invite those that they saw worthy enough to their society lodge for initiation into the society. Often, societies would have minor rivalries; however, they might work together as a unit when warring with an enemy. Military societies played an important role in Cheyenne government. Society leaders were often in charge of organizing hunts and raids as well as ensuring proper discipline and the enforcement of laws within the nation.<ref name="greene-9">Greene 2004, p. 9.</ref> Each of the six distinct warrior societies of the Cheyenne took turns leadering the nation.<ref name="hyde-336">Hyde 1968, p. 336.</ref> The four original military societies of the Cheyenne were the Swift Fox Society, Elk Horn Scrapper or Crooked Lance Society, Shield Society, and the Bowstring Men Society. The fifth society is split between the Crazy Dog Society and the famous [[Dog Soldiers]]. The sixth society is the Contrary Warrior Society, most notable for riding backward into battle as a sign of bravery.<ref name=Dictionary>Chief Dull Knife College [http://cdkc.edu/cheyennedictionary/lexicon/main.htm "Cheyenne Dictionary"] 2007-09-05. Retrieved June 10, 2013</ref> All six societies and their various branches exist among the Southern and Northern Cheyenne nations in present times. 

Warriors used a combination of weapons from [[Gunstock war club|war clubs]], [[Tomahawk (axe)|tomahawks]], and bows and arrows, and lances to [[firearms]] acquired through raiding and trade.

The enemies of the Cheyenne included the [[Crow Nation|Apsáalooke]] (Óoetaneo'o – "crow (bird) people"), [[Shoshone people|Shoshone]] (Sósone'eo'o), [[Blackfoot Confederacy|Blackfeet]] (Mo'ȯhtávėhahtátaneo'o, same literal meaning), [[Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation|Interior Salish and Kuntenai]] (Kȧhkoestséataneo'o – "flat-headed-people"), [[Nez Perce people|Nez Perce]] (Otaesétaneo'o – "pierced nose people"), [[Arikara people|Arikara]], [[Gros Ventre people|Gros Ventre]] (Hestóetaneo'o – "beggars for meat", "spongers" or Mȯhónooneo'o – lit. "scouting all over ones"), [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]], and [[Cree|Plains Cree]] (Vóhkoohétaneo'o – "rabbit people") to the north and west of Cheyenne territory. By the help of the Medicine Arrows (the Mahuts), the Cheyenne tribe [[Tongue River Massacre (1820)|massacred a Crow camp in 1820]].<ref>Hyde, George E.: Life of George Bent. Written From His Letters. Norman, 1987. Pp. 25–26.</ref> To the east of Cheyenne Territory they fought with the [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Dakota people|Dakota]], [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]], [[Ponca]], [[Kaw people|Kaw]], [[Iowa people|Iowa]], [[Ho-Chunk]], and [[Omaha people|Omaha]] (Onéhao'o). [[The Pawnee capture of the Cheyenne's Sacred Arrows|The Pawnee captured the Cheyenne's Sacred Arrows]] during an attack on a hunting camp around 1830.<ref name=Dorsey1903>Dorsey, George A.: "How the Pawnee Captured the Cheyenne Medicine Arrows." ''American Anthropologist'', New Series. Vol. 5 (Oct. – Dec. 1903), No. 4, pp. 644–658.</ref> 

South of Cheyenne territory they fought with the Kiowa, Comanche, [[Ute people|Ute]], [[Plains Apache]], [[Osage Nation|Osage]], [[Wichita people|Wichita]], various [[Apache]] tribes, and [[Navajo people|Navajo]]. Many of the enemies the Cheyenne fought were only encountered occasionally, such as on a long-distance raid or hunt. Some of their enemies, particularly the Eastern Plains tribe such as the Pawnee and Osage would act as [[United States Army Indian Scouts|Indian Scouts]] for the US Army, providing valuable tracking skills and information regarding Cheyenne habits and fighting strategies to US soldiers. Some of their enemies such as the Lakota would later in their history become their strong allies, helping the Cheyenne fight against the United States Army during [[Red Cloud's War]] and the [[Great Sioux War of 1876]]. The Comanche, Kiowa and Plains Apache became allies of the Cheyenne towards the end of the Indian wars on the Southern Plains, fighting together during conflicts such as the [[Red River War]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Red River War |url=https://www.texasbeyondhistory.net/redriver/ |website=Texas Beyond History |access-date=23 May 2024}}</ref>

===Relationship with the Arapaho===
{{see|Arapaho people}}
The Cheyenne and Arapaho formed an alliance around 1811 that helped them expand their territories and strengthen their presence on the plains. Like the Cheyenne, the [[Arapaho language]] is an [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian language]], although the two languages are not mutually intelligible. The Arapaho remained strong allies with the Cheyenne and helped them fight alongside the Lakota and Dakota during Red Cloud's War and the Great Sioux War of 1876, also known commonly as the Black Hills War. On the Southern Plains, the Arapaho and Cheyenne allied with the Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache to fight invading settlers and US soldiers. 

The Arapaho were present with the Cheyenne at the [[Sand Creek Massacre]] when a peaceful encampment of mostly women, children, and the elderly were attacked and massacred by US soldiers. Both major divisions of the Cheyenne, the Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne were allies to the Arapaho who like the Cheyenne are split into northern and southern divisions. The Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho were assigned to the same reservation in Oklahoma [[Indian Territory]] and remained together as the federally recognized [[Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes]] after the reservation was opened to American settlement and into modern times.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fowler |first1=Loretta |title=Arapaho, Southern |url=https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry?entry=AR002 |website=The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture |access-date=23 May 2024}}</ref>

The Northern Arapaho were to be assigned a reservation of their own or share one with the Cheyenne; however, the US federal government failed to provide them with either and placed them on the already established [[Wind River Indian Reservation]] in Wyoming with their former enemies the [[Shoshone people|Shoshone]].

===Treaty of 1825===
In the summer of 1825, the tribe was visited on the Upper Missouri River by a US treaty commission consisting of [[Henry Atkinson (soldier)|General Henry Atkinson]] and [[Indian agent]] [[Benjamin O'Fallon]], accompanied by a military escort of 476 men. General Atkinson and his fellow commissioner left [[Fort Atkinson (Nebraska)|Fort Atkinson]] on May 16, 1825. Ascending the Missouri, they negotiated [[Treaty#United States|treaties]] of friendship and trade with tribes of the upper Missouri, including the [[Arikara]], the Cheyenne, the Crow, the [[Mandan]], the [[Ponca]], and several bands of the Lakota and Dakota. At that time, the US had competition on the upper Missouri from British traders, who came south from Canada.

The treaties acknowledged that the tribes lived within the United States, vowed perpetual friendship between the US and the tribes, and, recognizing the right of the United States to regulate trade, the tribes promised to deal only with licensed traders. The tribes agreed to forswear private retaliation for injuries, and to return stolen horses or other goods or compensate the owner. The commission's efforts to contact the Blackfoot and the [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]] were unsuccessful. During their return to Fort Atkinson at the Council Bluff in Nebraska, the commission had successful negotiations with the [[Otoe tribe|Otoe]], the Pawnee and the [[Omaha (tribe)|Omaha]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OHxu5MRcDNcC&dq=treaty+cheyenne+%22Henry+Atkinson%22&pg=PA143 Page 143], Francis Paul Prucha, ''American Indian treaties: the history of a political anomaly'', University of California Press (March 15, 1997), trade paperback, 562 pages {{ISBN|0-520-20895-1}} {{ISBN|978-0-520-20895-7}}</ref>

===Effects of the Emigrant Trail===
Increased traffic of emigrants along the related [[Oregon]], [[Mormon]] and [[California]] trails, beginning in the early 1840s, heightened competition with Native Americans for scarce resources of water and game in arid areas. With resource depletion along the trails, the Cheyenne became increasingly divided into the Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne, where they could have adequate territory for sustenance.

During the [[California Gold Rush]], emigrants brought in [[cholera]]. It spread in mining camps and waterways due to poor sanitation. The disease was generally a major cause of death for emigrants, about one-tenth of whom died during their journeys.

Perhaps from traders, the cholera epidemic reached the Plains Indians in 1849, resulting in severe loss of life during the summer of that year. Historians estimate about 2,000 Cheyenne died, one-half to two-thirds of their population. There were significant losses among other tribes as well, which weakened their social structures. Perhaps because of severe loss of trade during the 1849 season, Bent's Fort was abandoned and burned.<ref>Berthrong, pp. 113–114</ref>

====Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851====
[[File:Arapaho and Cheyenne 1851 treaty territory. (Area 426 and 477).png|thumb|Arapaho and Cheyenne 1851 treaty territory. (Area 426 and 477). Area 477 is the reserve established by treaty of Fort Wise, February 18, 1861.]]
[[File:Cheyenne warrior Alights on the Cloud in his armor, 1852.jpg|thumb|upright 0.5|Cheyenne warrior Alights on the Cloud in his armor. [[Killing of Alights on the Cloud|He was killed]] during an attack on a Pawnee hunting camp in 1852]]

In 1846, [[Thomas Fitzpatrick (trapper)|Thomas Fitzpatrick]] was appointed US [[Indian agent]] for the upper Arkansas and [[Platte River]]. His efforts to negotiate with the Northern Cheyenne, the Arapaho and other tribes led to a great council at [[Fort Laramie]] in 1851. Treaties were negotiated by a commission consisting of Fitzpatrick and David Dawson Mitchell, US [[Bureau of Indian Affairs|Superintendent of Indian Affairs]], with the [[Plains Indians|Indians of the northern plains]].

To reduce intertribal warfare on the Plains, the government officials "assigned" territories to each tribe and had them pledge mutual peace. In addition, the government secured permission to build and maintain roads for European-American travelers and traders through Indian country on the Plains, such as the [[Emigrant Trail]] and the [[Santa Fe Trail]], and to maintain [[Fortification#American West|forts]] to guard them. The tribes were compensated with annuities of cash and supplies for such encroachment on their territories. The [[Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)|Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851]] affirmed the Cheyenne and Arapaho territory on the [[Great Plains]] between the [[North Platte River]] and the Arkansas. This territory included what is now Colorado, east of the Front Range of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]] and north of the Arkansas River; Wyoming and [[Nebraska]], south of the North Platte River; and extreme western [[Kansas]].<ref>Berthrong, pp. 106–123</ref>

====Punitive US expedition of 1857====
In April 1856, an incident at the Platte River Bridge (near present-day [[Casper, Wyoming]]), resulted in the wounding of a Cheyenne warrior. He returned to the Cheyenne on the plains. During the summer of 1856, Indians attacked travelers along the Emigrant Trail near Fort Kearny. In retaliation, the US Cavalry attacked a Cheyenne camp on [[Grand Island (Nebraska)|Grand Island in Nebraska]]. They killed ten Cheyenne warriors and wounded eight or more.

Cheyenne parties attacked at least three emigrant settler parties before returning to the [[Republican River]]. The Indian agent at [[Fort Laramie]] negotiated with the Cheyenne to reduce hostilities, but the [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] ordered the [[1st Cavalry Regiment (1855)]] to carry out a punitive expedition under the command of [[Edwin Vose Sumner|Colonel Edwin V. Sumner]]. He went against the Cheyenne in the spring of 1857. [[John Sedgwick|Major John Sedgwick]] led part of the expedition up the [[Arkansas River]], and via Fountain Creek to the [[South Platte River]]. Sumner's command went west along the North Platte to Fort Laramie, then down along the Front Range to the South Platte. The combined force of 400 troops went east through the plains searching for Cheyenne.<ref name=Berthrong/><ref name=Grinnell111>Grinnell, ''The Fighting Cheyenne'', pp. 111–21</ref><ref name="Hyde, pp. 99-105">Hyde, pp. 99–105</ref>

Under the influence of the [[medicine man]] White Bull (also called Ice) and Grey Beard (also called Dark), the Cheyenne went into battle believing that strong spiritual [[Magic (paranormal)#Native American medicine|medicine]] would prevent the soldiers' guns from firing. They were told that if they dipped their hands in a nearby spring, they had only to raise their hands to repel army bullets. Hands raised, the Cheyenne surrounded the advancing troops as they advanced near the [[Solomon River]]. Sumner ordered a cavalry charge and the troops charged with drawn sabers; the Cheyenne fled. With tired horses after long marches, the cavalry could not engage more than a few Cheyenne, as their horses were fresh.

This was the first battle that the Cheyenne fought against the US Army. Casualties were few on each side; [[J.E.B. Stuart]], then a young lieutenant, was shot in the breast while attacking a Cheyenne warrior with a sabre. The troops continued on and two days later burned a hastily abandoned Cheyenne camp; they destroyed lodges and the winter supply of buffalo meat.<ref name=Grinnell111/><ref name="Hyde, pp. 99-105"/><ref name="Berthrong">Berthrong, pp. 133– 40</ref><ref>Page 97-98, David Fridtjof Halaas and Andrew E. Masich, ''Halfbreed: The Remarkable True Story Of [[George Bent]] – Caught Between The Worlds Of The Indian And The White Man'', Da Capo Press (March 15, 2005), hardcover, 458 pages, {{ISBN|0-306-81410-2}} {{ISBN|978-0306814105}}</ref>

Sumner continued to [[Bent's Fort]]. To punish the Cheyenne, he distributed their annuities to the Arapaho. He intended further punitive actions, but the Army ordered him to Utah because of an outbreak of trouble with the Mormons (this would be known as the [[Utah War]]). The Cheyenne moved below the Arkansas into [[Kiowa]] and [[Comanche]] country. In the fall, the Northern Cheyenne returned to their country north of the Platte.<ref name=Grinnell111/><ref name="Berthrong" /><ref>Hyde, pp. 99–105</ref>

====Pike's Peak Gold Rush====
[[File:Dull Knife.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Morning Star (chief)|Morning Star (aka Dull Knife)]] ([[Cheyenne language|Cheyenne]]: ''Vóóhéhéve'' or [[Lakota language|Lakota]]: ''Tamílapéšni''), Chief of Northern Cheyenne at [[Battle of Little Bighorn]]]] [[File:Chief Black Kettle.jpg|left|thumb|180px|Chief [[Black Kettle]] of the Southern Cheyenne, an advocate of peace among his people.]]

Starting in 1859 with the [[Colorado Gold Rush]], European-American settlers moved into lands reserved for the Cheyenne and other Plains Indians. Travel greatly increased along the Emigrant Trail along the [[South Platte River]] and some emigrants stopped before going on to California. For several years there was peace between settlers and Indians. The only conflicts were related to the [[endemic warfare]] between the Cheyenne and Arapaho of the plains and the [[Ute people|Ute]]s of the mountains.

US negotiations with [[Black Kettle]] and other Cheyenne favoring peace resulted in the [[Treaty of Fort Wise]]: it established a small reservation for the Cheyenne in southeastern Colorado in exchange for the territory agreed to in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. Many Cheyenne did not sign the treaty, and they continued to live and hunt on their traditional grounds in the Smoky Hill and Republican basins, between the Arkansas and the South Platte, where there were plentiful buffalo.<ref name="Grinnell, pp. 124">Grinnell, ''The Fighting Cheyenne'', pp. 124 to 158</ref>

Efforts to make a wider peace continued, but in the spring of 1864, [[John Evans (Colorado governor)|John Evans]], governor of Colorado Territory, and [[John Chivington]], commander of the Colorado Volunteers, a [[Militia (United States)|citizens militia]], began a series of attacks on Indians camping or hunting on the plains. They killed any Indian on sight and initiated the [[Colorado War]]. General warfare broke out and Indians made many raids on the trail along the South Platte, which Denver depended on for supplies. The Army closed the road from August 15 until September 24, 1864.<ref name="Grinnell, pp. 124"/>

==== Sand Creek Massacre ====
{{Further|Sand Creek Massacre}}
On November 29, 1864, the Colorado Militia attacked a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment under [[Chief Black Kettle]], although it flew a [[White flag|flag of truce]] and indicated its allegiance to the US government. The [[Sand Creek massacre]], as it came to be known, resulted in the death of between 150 and 200 Cheyenne, mostly unarmed women and children. The survivors fled northeast and joined the camps of the Cheyenne on the [[Smoky Hill River|Smoky Hill]] and [[Republican River|Republican]] rivers. There warriors smoked the war pipe, passing it from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho.<ref name="Hyde, pp. 168 to 195">Hyde, pp. 168 to 195</ref>

In January 1865, they planned and carried out a retaliatory [[Battle of Julesburg|attack]] with about 1000 warriors on Camp Rankin, a stage station and fort at [[Julesburg, Colorado|Julesburg]]. The Indians made numerous raids along the South Platte, both east and west of Julesburg, and raided the fort again in early February. They captured much [[Looting|loot]] and killed many European Americans. Most of the Indians moved north into Nebraska on their way to the Black Hills and the Powder River.<ref name="Hyde, pp. 168 to 195"/> (See [[Battle of Julesburg]], [[Battle of Mud Springs]], [[Battle of Rush Creek]], [[Powder River Expedition]], [[Battle of Platte Bridge]])

Black Kettle continued to desire peace and did not join in the second raid or in the plan to go north to the Powder River country. He left the large camp and returned with 80 lodges of his tribesmen to the Arkansas River, where he intended to seek peace with the US.<ref>Grinnell, ''The Fighting Cheyenne'', p. 188</ref>

====Battle of Washita River====
{{Further|Battle of Washita River}}
Four years later, on November 27, 1868, [[George Armstrong Custer]] and his troops attacked Black Kettle's band at the [[Battle of Washita River]]. Although his band was camped on a defined reservation, complying with the government's orders, some of its members had been linked to raiding into [[Kansas]] by bands operating out of the [[Indian Territory]]. Custer claimed 103 Cheyenne "warriors" and an unspecified number of women and children killed whereas different Cheyenne informants named between 11 and 18 men (mostly 10 Cheyenne, 2 Arapaho, 1 Mexican trader) and between 17 and 25 women and children killed in the village.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

There are conflicting claims as to whether the band was hostile or friendly. Historians believe that Chief Black Kettle, head of the band, was not part of the war party but the peace party within the Cheyenne nation. But, he did not command absolute authority over members of his band and the European Americans did not understand this. When younger members of the band took part in raiding parties, European Americans blamed the entire band for the incidents and casualties.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

====Battle of the Little Bighorn====
{{expand section|date=May 2014}}
The Northern Cheyenne fought in the [[Battle of the Little Bighorn]], which took place on June 25, 1876. The Cheyenne, together with the Lakota, other Sioux warriors and a small band of [[Arapaho]], killed General [[George Armstrong Custer]] and much of his 7th Cavalry contingent of soldiers. Historians have estimated that the population of the Cheyenne, Lakota and Arapaho encampment along the [[Little Bighorn River]] was approximately 10,000, making it one of the largest gatherings of Native Americans in North America in pre-reservation times. News of the event traveled across the United States and reached [[Washington, D.C.]], just as the nation was celebrating its [[Centennial]]. Public reaction arose in outrage against the Cheyenne.

====Northern Cheyenne Exodus====
{{Main|Northern Cheyenne Exodus|Fort Robinson tragedy|Murder trial of seven Cheyenne (1879)}}
[[File:Little Coyote and Morning Star.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Little Wolf|Little Coyote (Little Wolf)]] and [[Morning Star (chief)|Morning Star (Dull Knife)]], chiefs of the Northern Cheyenne]]
[[File:Cheyenne-prisoners-Kansas.jpg|thumb|left|Cheyenne prisoners in Kansas involved in escape northward. From left to right: Tangle Hair, Wild Hog, Strong Left Hand, George Reynolds (interpreter), Old Crow, Noisy Walker, Porcupine, and Blacksmith. All prisoners were released free from charges.]]

Following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the US Army increased attempts to capture the Cheyenne. In 1879, after the [[Dull Knife Fight]], when [[Crazy Horse]] surrendered at [[Fort Robinson]], a few Cheyenne chiefs and their people surrendered as well. They were [[Morning Star (chief)|Morning Star (aka Dull Knife)]], Standing Elk and Wild Hog with around 130 Cheyenne. Later that year [[Two Moons]] surrendered at [[Fort Keogh]], with 300 Cheyenne. The Cheyenne wanted and expected to live on the reservation with the [[Sioux]] in accordance to an April 29, 1868 treaty of [[Fort Laramie]], which both Dull Knife and Little Wolf had signed.<ref name="Brown, Dee 1970 pp.332-349">Brown, pp. 332–349</ref>

As part of a US increase in troops following the Battle of the Little Bighorn, the Army reassigned Colonel [[Ranald S. Mackenzie]] and his Fourth Cavalry to the Department of the Platte. Stationed initially at [[Fort Robinson|Camp Robinson]], they formed the core of the Powder River Expedition. It departed in October 1876 to locate the northern Cheyenne villages. On November 25, 1876, his column discovered and defeated a village of Northern Cheyenne in the Dull Knife Fight in [[Wyoming Territory]]. After the soldiers destroyed the lodges and supplies and confiscated the horses, the Northern Cheyenne soon surrendered. They hoped to remain with the Sioux in the north but the US pressured them to locate with the Southern Cheyenne on their reservation in Indian Territory. After a difficult council, the Northern Cheyenne eventually agreed to go South.

When the Northern Cheyenne arrived at Indian Territory, conditions were very difficult: rations were inadequate, there were no buffalo near the reservation and, according to several sources, there was [[malaria]] among the people. On 9 September 1878, a portion of the Northern Cheyenne, led by Little Wolf and Dull Knife started their trek back to [[Northern Cheyenne Exodus|the north]]. After fighting battles with the U.S. army at [[Battle of Turkey Springs|Turkey Springs]] and [[Battle of Punished Woman's Fork|Punished Woman's Fork]] and reaching the northern area, they split into two bands. That led by Dull Knife (mostly women, children and elders) surrendered and were taken to Fort Robinson, where subsequent events became known as the [[Fort Robinson tragedy]]. Dull Knife's group was first offered food and firewood and then, after a week and a half, they were told to go back to [[Indian territory]]. When they said no, they were then locked in the wooden barracks with no food, water or firewood for heat for four days. Most escaped in an estimated forty degrees below zero on January 9, 1879, but all were recaptured or killed.<ref name="Brown, Dee 1970 pp.332-349" /><ref name="Glenn"/>

Eventually the US forced the Northern Cheyenne onto a [[Northern Cheyenne Reservation|reservation]], in southern Montana.<ref name="Brown, Dee 1970 pp.332-349" /><ref name="Glenn">Maddux Albert Glenn, ''In Dull Knife's Wake: The True Story of the Northern Cheyenne Exodus of 1878,'' Horse Creek Publications (2003), {{ISBN|0-9722217-1-9}} {{ISBN|978-0-9722217-1-9}}</ref><ref>Grinnell, ''The Fighting Cheyenne'', pp. 398–427</ref>

===Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation===
{{Main|Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation}}
[[File:Flag of Northern Cheyenne.svg|thumb|Flag of the [[Northern Cheyenne Tribe of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation]] in Montana]]
[[File:WhiteBuffalo.jpg|thumb|upright|[[White Buffalo (Cheyenne leader)|White Buffalo]], a Northern Cheyenne chief who received the rank of sergeant in the United States Army.]]

The Cheyenne who traveled to [[Fort Keogh]] (present-day [[Miles City, Montana]]), including Little Wolf, settled near the fort.<ref name="Brown, Dee 1970 pp.332-349"/> Many of the Cheyenne worked with the army as scouts. The Cheyenne scouts were pivotal in helping the Army find [[Chief Joseph]] and his band of [[Nez Perce tribe|Nez Percé]] in northern Montana. Fort Keogh became a staging and gathering point for the Northern Cheyenne. Many families began to migrate south to the [[Tongue River (Montana)|Tongue River]] watershed area, where they established homesteads.<ref name="WE, THE NORTHERN CHEYENNE PEOPLE">[https://archive.org/stream/wenortherncheyen2008amblrich/wenortherncheyen2008amblrich_djvu.txt "WE, THE NORTHERN CHEYENNE PEOPLE]: Our Land, Our History, Our Culture", Chief Dull Knife College. Page 30. Accessed September 20, 2009</ref>

[[File:Montana Indian Reservations.svg|thumb|left|Map of Indian Reservations in the state of Montana including the Northern Cheyenne Reservation.]]
The US established the Tongue River Indian Reservation, now named the [[Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation]], of {{convert|371200|acre|km2}} by the executive order of [[Chester A. Arthur|President Chester A. Arthur]] November 16, 1884. It excluded Cheyenne who had homesteaded further east near the Tongue River. The western boundary is the [[Crow Indian Reservation]]. On March 19, 1900, [[William McKinley|President William McKinley]] extended the reservation to the west bank of the Tongue River, making a total of {{convert|444157|acre|km2|0}}. Those who had homesteaded east of the Tongue River were relocated to the west of the river.<ref name="WE, THE NORTHERN CHEYENNE PEOPLE"/>

The Northern Cheyenne, who were sharing the Lakota land at [[Pine Ridge Indian Reservation]] were finally allowed to return to the Tongue River on their own reservation. Along with the Lakota and Apache, the Cheyenne were the last nations to be overpowered and forced on reservations. (The [[Seminole]] tribe of Florida never made a treaty with the US government.)

The Northern Cheyenne were given the right to remain in the north, near the [[Black Hills]], land which they consider sacred. The Cheyenne also managed to retain their culture, religion and language. Today, the Northern Cheyenne Nation is one of the few American Indian nations to have control over the majority of its land base, currently 98%.