Editing Chinese classifier (section)

== Types ==
The vast majority of classifiers are those that count or classify nouns (''nominal classifiers'', as in all the examples given so far, as opposed to ''[[#Verbal classifiers|verbal classifiers]]'').<ref name=Hu9>{{Harvnb|Hu|1993|p=9}}</ref> These are further subdivided into ''count-classifiers'' and ''mass-classifiers'', described below. In everyday speech, people often use the term "measure word", or its literal Chinese equivalent {{lang|zh|量词}}&nbsp;{{Transliteration|zh|liàngcí}}, to cover all Chinese count-classifiers and mass-classifiers,<ref name=Li1116Hu7WangHe8>{{Harvnb|Li|2000|p=1116}}; {{Harvnb|Hu|1993|p=7}}; {{Harvnb|Wang|1994|pp=22, 24–25}}; {{Harvnb|He|2001|p=8}}. Also see the usage in {{Harvtxt|Fang|Connelly|2008}} and most introductory Chinese textbooks.</ref> but the types of words grouped under this term are not all the same. Specifically, the various types of classifiers exhibit numerous differences in meaning, in the kinds of words they attach to, and in [[syntactic]] behavior.

Chinese has a large number of nominal classifiers; estimates of the number in Mandarin range from "several dozen"<ref name=LiThomp105>{{Harvnb|Li|Thompson|1981|p=105}}</ref> or "about 50",<ref name=Chao79>{{Harvnb|Chao|1968|loc=section 7.9}}</ref> to over 900.<ref name=Zhang44>{{Harvnb|Zhang|2007|p=44}}</ref> The range is so large because some of these estimates include all types of classifiers while others include only count-classifiers,<ref group=note>In addition to the count-mass distinction and nominal-verbal distinction described below, various linguists have proposed many additional divisions of classifiers by type. {{Harvtxt|He|2001|loc=chapters 2 and 3}} contains a review of these.</ref> and because the idea of what constitutes a "classifier" [[#other names|has changed over time]]. Today, regular dictionaries include 120 to 150 classifiers;<ref name=Erbaugh403Fangix>{{Harvnb|Erbaugh|1986|p=403}}; {{Harvnb|Fang|Connelly|2008|p=ix}}</ref> the 8822-word ''Syllabus of Graded Words and Characters for Chinese Proficiency''<ref group=note>The ''Syllabus of Graded Words and Characters for Chinese Proficiency'' is a standardized measure of vocabulary and character recognition, used in the [[People's Republic of China]] for testing middle school students, high school students, and foreign learners. The most recent edition was published in 2003 by the Testing Center of the National Chinese Proficiency Testing Committee.</ref> ({{lang-zh|c=汉语水平词汇与汉字等级大纲|p=Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Cíhuì yǔ Hànzi Děngjí Dàgāng|links=no}}) lists 81;<ref name=He234>{{Harvnb|He|2001|p=234}}</ref> and a 2009 list compiled by Gao Ming and Barbara Malt includes 126.<ref name=GaoMalt1133>{{Harvnb|Gao|Malt|2009|p=1133}}</ref> The number of classifiers that are in everyday, informal use, however, may be lower: linguist [[Mary Erbaugh]] has claimed that about two dozen "core classifiers" account for most classifier use.<ref name=Erbaugh403>{{Harvnb|Erbaugh|1986|p=403}}</ref> As a whole, though, the classifier system is so complex that specialized classifier dictionaries have been published.<ref name=GaoMalt1133/><ref group=note>Including the following:
*{{Cite book | last=Chen | first=Baocun {{lang|zh|陈保存}}  | year=1988 |title=Chinese Classifier Dictionary |script-title=zh:汉语量词词典 | location=Fuzhou | publisher=Fujian People's Publishing House {{lang|zh|福建人民出版社}} | isbn=978-7-211-00375-4 }}
*{{Cite book | last1=Fang | first1=Jiqing | last2=Connelly | last3=Michael | year=2008 | title=Chinese Measure Word Dictionary | location=Boston | publisher=Cheng & Tsui | isbn=978-0-88727-632-3 }}
*{{Cite book | last=Jiao | first=Fan {{lang|zh|焦凡}} | year=2001 |title=A Chinese-English Dictionary of Measure Words  |script-title=zh:汉英量词词典 | location=Beijing | publisher=Sinolingua {{lang|zh|华语敎学出版社}} | isbn=978-7-80052-568-1 }}
*{{Cite book | last=Liu | first=Ziping {{lang|zh|刘子平}} | year=1996 | title=Chinese Classifier Dictionary  |script-title=zh:汉语量词词典 | publisher=[[Inner Mongolia Education Press]] {{lang|zh|内蒙古教育出版社}} | isbn=978-7-5311-2707-9 }}</ref>

===Count-classifiers and mass-classifiers===
{{Quote box | quote=A '''classifier''' categorizes a class of nouns by picking out some [[Salience (semiotics)|salient]] perceptual properties...which are permanently associated with entities named by the class of nouns; a '''measure word''' does not categorize but denotes the quantity of the entity named by a noun. | source = — {{Harvtxt|Tai|1994|p=2}}, emphasis added | align=right | width=25% | bgcolor=#FFFFE0  | salign=right}}

Within the set of nominal classifiers, linguists generally draw a distinction between "count-classifiers" and "mass-classifiers". True ''count-classifiers''<ref group=note>Count-classifiers have also been called "individual classifiers", {{Harv|Chao|1968|p=509}}, "qualifying classifiers" ({{Harvnb|Zhang|2007|p=45}}; {{Harvnb|Hu|1993|p=10}}), and just "classifiers" {{Harv|Cheng|Sybesma|1998|p=3}}.</ref> are used for naming or counting a single [[count noun]],<ref name=Zhang44/> and have no direct translation in English; for example:

{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|本}} 书|yì {{uline|běn}} shū|one {{uline|CL}} book|"one book" or "a book"<ref name=Erbaugh404>{{Harvnb|Erbaugh|1986|p=404}}</ref>}}

Furthermore, count-classifiers cannot be used with [[mass noun]]s: just as an English speaker cannot ordinarily say *"five muds", a Chinese speaker cannot say

{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|* 五 {{uline|个}} 泥|{} wǔ {{uline|ge}} nì|{} five {{uline|CL}} mud|}}

For such mass nouns, one must use ''mass-classifiers''.<ref name=Zhang44/><ref group=note>Mass-classifiers have also been called "measure words", "massifiers" {{Harv|Cheng|Sybesma|1998|p=3}}, "non-individual classifiers" {{Harv|Chao|1968|p=509}}, and "quantifying classifiers" ({{Harvnb|Zhang|2007|p=45}}; {{Harvnb|Hu|1993|p=10}}). The term "mass-classifier" is used in this article to avoid ambiguous usage of the term "measure word", which is often used in everyday speech to refer to both count-classifiers and mass-classifiers, even though in technical usage it only means mass-classifiers {{Harv|Li|2000|p=1116}}.</ref>

Mass-classifiers (true [[measure word]]s) do not pick out inherent properties of an individual noun like count-classifiers do; rather, they lump nouns into countable units. Thus, mass-classifiers can generally be used with multiple types of nouns; for example, while the mass-classifier {{lang|zh|盒}}&nbsp;({{Transliteration|zh|hé}}, box) can be used to count boxes of lightbulbs or of books

{{columns-start}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|盒}} 灯泡|yì {{uline|hé}} dēngpào|"one {{uline|box}} of lightbulbs"}}
{{column}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|盒}} 教材|yì {{uline|hé}} jiàocái|"one {{uline|box}} of textbooks"}}
{{columns-end}}

each of these nouns must use a different count-classifier when being counted by itself.

{{columns-start}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|盏}} 灯泡|yì {{uline|zhǎn}} dēngpào|"one lightbulb"}}
{{column}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|本}} 教材|yì {{uline|běn}} jiàocái|"one textbook"}}
{{columns-end}}

While count-classifiers have no direct English translation, mass-classifiers often do:

{{columns-start}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|个}} 人|yí {{uline|ge}} rén|one {{uline|CL}} person|"one person" or "a person"}}
{{column}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|群}} 人|yì {{uline|qún}} rén|one {{uline|crowd}} person|"a crowd of people"}}
{{columns-end}}

All languages, including English, have mass-classifiers, but count-classifiers are unique to certain "classifier languages", and are not a part of English grammar apart from a few exceptional cases such as head of livestock.<ref name=Tai3Allan285-6/>

Within the range of mass-classifiers, authors have proposed subdivisions based on the manner in which a mass-classifier organizes the noun into countable units. One of these is ''measurement units'' (also called "standard measures"),<ref name=Ahrensn3>{{Harvnb|Ahrens|1994|p=239, note 3}}</ref> which all languages must have in order to measure items; this category includes units such as kilometers, liters, or pounds<ref name=LiThomp105Zhang44Erbaughn5>{{Harvnb|Li|Thompson|1981|p=105}}; {{Harvnb|Zhang|2007|p=44}}; {{Harvnb|Erbaugh|1986|p=118, note 5}}</ref> (see [[List of Chinese classifiers#Measurement units|list]]). Like other classifiers, these can also stand without a noun.<ref name=LiThomp105-7>{{Harvnb|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=105–107}}</ref> Units of currency behave similarly.

{| {{table}}
!
! with noun
! without noun
|-
! measurement units
| {{fs interlinear|lang=zh|三 {{uline|磅}} 肉|sān {{uline|bàng}} ròu|"three {{uline|pounds}} of meat"}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=zh|三 {{uline|磅}}|sān {{uline|bàng}}|"three {{uline|pounds}}"}}
<!--
| {{fs interlinear|lang=zh|* 三 {{uline|个}} {{uline|磅}}|{} sān {{uline|ge}} {{uline|bàng}}|}}
-->
|-
! units of currency
| {{fs interlinear|lang=zh|十 {{uline|元}} 人民币|shí {{uline|yuán}} rénmínbì|"ten {{uline|units}} of [[renminbi]]"}}
| {{fs interlinear|lang=zh|十 {{uline|元}}|shí {{uline|yuán}}|"ten {{uline|[[Chinese yuan|yuan]]}}"}}
|}

Other proposed types of mass-classifiers include
* "collective"<ref name=Erbaughn5Hu9>{{Harvnb|Erbaugh|1986|p=118, note 5}}; {{Harvnb|Hu|1993|p=9}}</ref><ref group=note>Also called "aggregate" {{Harv|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=107–109}} or "group" {{Harv|Ahrens|1994|p=239, note 3}} measures.</ref> mass-classifiers, which group things less precisely
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=4|一 {{uline|群}} 人|yì {{uline|qún}} rén|"a {{uline|crowd}} of people"}}
* "container"<ref name=Erbaughn5>{{Harvnb|Erbaugh|1986|p=118, note 5}}; {{Harvnb|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=107–109}}</ref> mass-classifiers which group things by containers they come in
{{columns-start}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=4|一 {{uline|碗}} 粥|yì {{uline|wǎn}} zhōu|"a {{uline|bowl}} of porridge"}}
{{column}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|包}} 糖|yì {{uline|bāo}} táng|"a {{uline|bag}} of sugar"}}
{{columns-end}}

The difference between count-classifiers and mass-classifiers can be described as one of quantifying versus categorizing: in other words, mass-classifiers ''create'' a unit by which to measure something (i.e. boxes, groups, chunks, pieces, etc.), whereas count-classifiers simply ''name'' an existing item.<ref name=ChengSybesma3Tai2>{{Harvnb|Cheng|Sybesma|1998|p=3}}; {{Harvnb|Tai|1994|p=2}}</ref> Most words can appear with both count-classifiers and mass-classifiers; for example, pizza can be described both using a count-classifier and using a mass-classifier.

{{columns-start}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|张}} 比萨|yì {{uline|zhāng}} bǐsà|"one pizza", literally "one {{uline|pie}} of pizza"}}
{{column}}
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|块}} 比萨|yí {{uline|kuài}} bǐsà|"one {{uline|piece}} of pizza"}}
{{columns-end}}

In addition to these semantic differences, there are differences in the grammatical behaviors of count-classifiers and mass-classifiers;<ref name=WangChengSybesma>{{Harvnb|Wang|1994|pp=27–36}}; {{Harvnb|Cheng|Sybesma|1998}}</ref> for example, mass-classifiers may be modified by a small set of adjectives, as in:

{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 大 {{uline|群}} 人|yí dà {{uline|qún}} rén|"a big {{uline|crowd}} of people"}}

Whereas count-classifiers usually may not. For example, this is never said:

{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|* 一 大 {{uline|个}} 人|{} yí dà {{uline|ge}} rén|}}

Instead the adjective must modify the noun:<ref name=ChengSybesma1998-3-5>{{Harvnb|Cheng|Sybesma|1998|pp=3–5}}</ref>

{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|一 {{uline|个}} 大 人|yí {{uline|ge}} dà rén|"a big person"}}

Another difference is that count-classifiers may often be replaced by a "general" classifier {{lang|zh|个}} ({{lang|zh|個}}), ''gè'' with no apparent change in meaning, whereas mass-classifiers may not.<ref name=Wang29-30>{{Harvnb|Wang|1994|pp=29–30}}</ref> Syntacticians [[Lisa Cheng (linguist)|Lisa Cheng]] and Rint Sybesma propose that count-classifiers and mass-classifiers have different underlying syntactic structures, with count-classifiers forming "classifier phrases",<ref group=note>"Classifier phrases" are similar to [[noun phrase]]s, but with a classifier rather than a noun as the [[head (linguistics)|head]] {{Harv|Cheng|Sybesma|1998|pp=16–17}}.</ref> and mass-classifiers being a sort of [[relative clause]] that only ''looks'' like a classifier phrase.<ref name=ChengSybesma>{{Harvnb|Cheng|Sybesma|1998}}</ref> The distinction between count-classifiers and mass-classifiers is often unclear, however, and other linguists have suggested that count-classifiers and mass-classifiers may not be fundamentally different. They posit that "count-classifier" and "mass-classifier" are the extremes of a continuum, with most classifiers falling somewhere in between.<ref name=Ahrensn5Wang>{{Harvnb|Ahrens|1994|p=239, note 5}}; {{Harvnb|Wang|1994|pp=26–27, 37–48}}</ref>

===Verbal classifiers===

There is a set of "[[List of Chinese classifiers#Verbal classifiers|verbal classifiers]]" used specifically for counting the number of times an action occurs, rather than counting a number of items; this set includes {{lang|zh|次}} ''cì'', {{lang|zh|遍}}/{{lang|zh|徧}} ''biàn'', {{lang|zh|回}} ''huí'', and {{lang|zh|下}} ''xià'', which all roughly translate to "times".<ref name=He4244>{{Harvnb|He|2001|pp=42, 44}}</ref> For example:

{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|我 去 过 三 {{uline|次}} 北京
|wǒ qù guo sān {{uline|cì}} Běijīng
|I go PAST three {{uline|CL}} Beijing
|"I have been to Beijing three {{uline|times}}"<ref name=Zhang44LiThomp110>{{Harvnb|Zhang|2007|p=44}}; {{Harvnb|Li|Thompson|1981|p=110}}; {{Harvnb|Fang|Connelly|2008|p=x}}</ref>}}

These words can also form compound classifiers with certain nouns, as in {{lang|zh|人次}} ''rén cì'' "person-time", which can be used to count (for example) visitors to a museum in a year (where visits by the same person on different occasions are counted separately).

Another type of verbal classifier indicates the tool or implement used to perform the action. An example is found in the sentence:

{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=2|
|他 踢 了 我 一 {{uline|脚}}
|tā tī le wǒ yī {{uline|jiǎo}}
|he kick PAST me one {{uline|foot}}
|"he kicked me"}}

The word {{lang|zh|脚}} ''jiǎo'', which usually serves as a simple noun meaning "foot", here functions as a verbal classifier reflecting the tool (namely the foot) used to perform the kicking action.