Editing Cleomenes I (section)

== Reign ==
During the first years of his reign, Cleomenes adopted prudent diplomacy, rejecting foreign expeditions when solicited, possibly due to the threat of a [[Helots|helot]] revolt that a defeat in a war abroad would cause.<ref>L. H. Jefery, "Greece before the Persian Invasion", in Boardman et al., ''Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IV'', p. 357.</ref>
=== Encounter at Plataia (519 BC) ===
The first known deed of Cleomenes as king is his dealing with the city of [[Plataea|Plataia]], located between [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Classical Athens|Athens]]. In 519, [[Herodotus]] states that Cleomenes happened to be in the vicinity of Plataia, when the Plataians requested an alliance with Sparta, which he rejected.  Instead he advised them to ally themselves with Athens, because he wanted to stir a border conflict between Thebes and Athens, two of the most powerful ''poleis'' of central Greece.<ref>Herodotus, vi. 108.</ref><ref name=":7">Ste. Croix, "Herodotus and King Cleomenes", p. 423.</ref><ref>L. H. Jefery, "Greece before the Persian Invasion", in Boardman et al., ''Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IV'', p. 360, thinks he rejected the Plataean offer to join the League because the city was "too remote and small".</ref> The Plataians probably wished to avoid their forced incorporation into the [[Boeotia|Boiotian League]], which was being built by Thebes at this time.<ref>L. H. Jefery, "Greece before the Persian Invasion", in Boardman et al., ''Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IV'', p. 358.</ref><ref name=":2" /> Their Spartan alliance request perhaps indicates that they wanted to become a member of the [[Peloponnesian League]], which was likewise being put in place at this time.<ref>L. H. Jefery, "Greece before the Persian Invasion", in Boardman et al., ''Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IV'', pp. 350–353.</ref><ref>Konecny et al., ''Plataiai'', pp. 26, 27.</ref> [[G. E. M. de Ste. Croix]] and [[Paul Cartledge]] call this move "a master-stroke" of diplomacy,<ref>Ste. Croix, "Herodotus and King Cleomenes", p. 423.</ref><ref>Cartledge, ''Sparta and Lakonia'', pp. 123, 124.</ref> but other modern scholars do not believe it was Cleomenes' intention to create a rift between Thebes and Athens.<ref>Scott, ''Historical Commentary on Herodotus'', p. 376.</ref>

Herodotus does not explain why Cleomenes was near Plataia at that time. A number of theories have been advanced to explain it. Perhaps he was marching on Thebes to support an invasion of his ally, Lattamyas of [[Thessaly]], but as the Thebans had defeated the Thessalians at the Battle of Ceressus before he arrived, he took the opportunity to try and undermine them without engaging his forces.<ref>Buck, ''History of Boeotia'', p. 114.</ref> Another possibility is that he was trying to convince either [[Megara]] or Thebes to join the Peloponnesian League, or he was arbitrating between Megara and Athens over the island of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]].<ref>Roobaert, ''Isolationnisme et Impérialisme'', p. 7, considers these theories as "baseless suppositions" and simply suggests that Cleomenes was on a diplomatic mission to Plataea.</ref><ref>L. H. Jefery, "Greece before the Persian Invasion", in Boardman et al., ''Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IV'', p. 360, thinks he was bringing Megara into the League.</ref><ref>Scott, ''Historical Commentary on Herodotus'', pp. 375, 376.</ref>

The date of this event has been challenged by some modern scholars, who have often suggested 509 rather than 519, as it would better fit with Cleomenes' latter involvement in Athenian politics, but the majority view remains in favour of 519.<ref>Forrest, ''History of Sparta'', p. 85, tends towards 509.</ref><ref>Buck, ''A History of Boeotia'', pp. 113, 114, favours 519.</ref><ref>Ste. Croix, "Herodotus and King Cleomenes", p. 422, supports the date of 519.</ref><ref>Roobaert, ''Isolationnisme et Impérialisme'', p. 6 (note 18), is in favour of 519.</ref><ref>Hornblower, ''Commentary on Thucydides, Volume I'', pp. 464, 465, supports 519.</ref><ref>Konecny et al., ''Plataiai'', p. 26 (note 87), favour 509/508.</ref><ref>Scott, ''Historical Commentary on Herodotus'', p. 375, for 519.</ref>

=== Foreign embassies (c.517–c.513 BC) ===
In c.516, Cleomenes received an embassy from Maeandrius of [[Samos]] asking him for help to expel the tyrant [[Syloson]], a puppet of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], which was at the time was subjugating the city-states of the eastern [[Aegean Sea]].<ref>Herodotus, iii. 148.</ref><ref name=":0">Cartledge, ''Sparta and Lakonia'', p. 124.</ref> However, with the support of the [[Ephor|ephors]], Cleomenes refused and they expelled Maeandrius from the Peloponnese. Perhaps Cleomenes did not want to commit the Peloponnesian League to long-distance wars, especially against the Persian Empire.<ref>Roobaert, ''Isolationnisme et Impérialisme'', pp 10, 11.</ref> Maeandrius' intentions may have also played a role, as he probably coveted the [[Tyrant|tyranny]] of Samos.<ref>L. H. Jefery, "Greece before the Persian Invasion", in Boardman et al., ''Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IV'', pp. 356, 357.</ref>

In about 513, [[Darius the Great]] invaded [[Scythia]], which prompted the latter to send an embassy to Sparta in order to request an alliance against the Persians. Herodotus says the Scythians offered to go from the river [[Rioni|Phasis]] to [[Media (region)|Media]], while the Spartans would march east from [[Ephesus]].<ref>Herodotus, vi. 84.</ref> This story is however suspect, as the Scythian ambassadors later resurfaced to explain the death of Cleomenes, and the proposed alliance looks like a Pan-Hellenic fantasy of Herodotus'.<ref>Roobaert, ''Isolationnisme et Impérialisme'', p. 17, thinks that there might be a layer of truth behind this embassy. </ref><ref>Cawkwell, "Cleomenes", p. 510.</ref> An alternative date of after 494 BC has been proposed, because the mention of Ephesus by Herodotus implies that the city was not under Persian control, which only happened after the [[Ionian Revolt]] of 499 – 494.<ref>Cawkwell, "Cleomenes", pp. 510, 511.</ref>

=== Interventions into Athenian politics (511–501 BC) ===
==== Sparta's War against Hippias (c.511–510 BC) ====
In the 500s, Cleomenes meddled four times in Athenian politics, which ultimately led to the creation of democracy in Athens.<ref name=":0">Cartledge, ''Sparta and Lakonia'', p. 124.</ref> The powerful, but exiled, [[Alcmaeonidae|Alcmaeonid]] family of Athens bribed the [[Pythia|Oracle of Apollo]] at [[Delphi]] to tell the Spartans that they would not have access to the Oracle unless they removed the tyranny of the [[Pisistratus|Peisistratid dynasty]], who had held power in Athens since 561.<ref>Cawkwell, "Cleomenes", p. 516.</ref><ref>Paga, ''Building democracy'', p. 14, writes that the bribe took the form of the temple of Apollo built by the family at Delphi.</ref> The first Spartan expedition, headed by [[Anchimolus]], took place in c.511, but was defeated by the tyrant [[Hippias (tyrant)|Hippias]], son of [[Pisistratus]], thanks to the help he received from his Thessalian allies, who had sent a force of 1000 cavalrymen.<ref>Sealey, ''A History of the Greek City-States'', p. 147, places the attack in 512.</ref><ref name=":3">Cartledge, ''Sparta and Lakonia'', p. 126.</ref><ref>D. M. Lewis, "The Tyranny of the Pisistradidae", in Boardman et al., ''Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IV'', p. 301.</ref>

In 510, Sparta sent a bigger force commanded by Cleomenes, who went to [[Attica]] by land. The Spartans defeated the [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] mercenaries of Hippias, then besieged Hippias in the [[Acropolis of Athens|Acropolis]], where he had sought shelter with his supporters. The tyrant surrendered after the Spartans captured his sons by chance; he then went into exile in the Persian Empire.<ref name=":3">Cartledge, ''Sparta and Lakonia'', p. 126.</ref><ref>Paga, ''Building democracy'', p. 14</ref> The war against Hippias was consistent with the policy of removing tyrants followed by Sparta during the late 6th-century. Moreover, the tyrants of Athens were known for their Persian sympathies (called [[Medism]]), which Cleomenes started to vigorously fight throughout Greece at this time.<ref name=":3" /><ref>Cawkwell, "Cleomenes", pp. 515, 516, does not think Hippias was medising.</ref> Hippias was also a friend of [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], another one of Sparta's enemies.<ref>Hornblower, ''Herodotus, Book V'', p. 181. Hornblower does not believe  in the theory of Sparta fighting tyranny.</ref> Embarrassed by owing the fall of the tyranny to the intervention of a Spartan king, the Athenians later promoted instead the story of [[Harmodius and Aristogeiton]], who had murdered Hippias' brother [[Hipparchus (brother of Hippias)|Hipparchus]] in 514.<ref>Ste. Croix, "Herodotus and King Cleomenes", p. 423.</ref>

Another reason for the Spartan interventions in Athens may be the defection of Megara from the Peloponnesian League, perhaps at the instigation of Hippias. This would also be the reason why Anchimolus had to use ships to reach Attica, since the [[Isthmus of Corinth]] was cut off. Cleomenes then forced Megara back into the League in 511/510. Moreover, [[Plutarch]] mentions that at the time of [[Solon]], Sparta acted as arbitrator between Athens and Megara for the ownership of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], an island in the [[Saronic Gulf]]. But as Cleomenes is cited as one of the arbiters, several modern scholars place the settlement in c.510, just after the war, because Cleomenes finally decided in favour of Athens, probably to punish Megara for its defection, and also to bring Athens into the Peloponnesian League.<ref>Sealey, ''A History of the Greek City-States'', p. 147, dates this intervention in Megara from 511.</ref> This theory remains controversial as several other opinions place the Megara arbitration in c.519, at the same time as the Plataea incident.<ref>Taylor, ''Salamis and the'' Salaminoi, pp. 43–46, does not take position between the two dates.</ref>

==== Athenian Revolution (507 BC) ====
In Athens, a struggle took place between aristocratic factions headed by [[Cleisthenes]] and [[Isagoras]] for the control of the city. The pro-Spartan [[Oligarchy|oligarch]] Isagoras became [[Eponymous archon|archon]] in 508/507, but Cleisthenes promised democratic reforms in order to gain greater support among the citizenry and expand his power-base.<ref>Ober, "'I Besieged That Man'", p. 86, writes that Cleisthenes only made propositions for a new political order at this point, since Isagoras was still archon.</ref><ref>Paga, ''Building democracy'', pp. 14, 15.</ref> Now on the losing side, Isagoras called for help from his friend Cleomenes, whom it was rumoured was also in love with Isagoras' wife.<ref>Huxley, ''Early Sparta'', p. 80.</ref> Cleomenes obtained the exile of Cleisthenes through diplomacy, but Isagoras still felt unsafe, and requested intervention by his Spartan friend. Cleomenes personally came to Athens with a small bodyguard, possibly thinking that his prestige would be enough to change the political course of the city.<ref name=":8">Forrest, ''History of Sparta'', p. 87.</ref><ref name=":7" /> Cleomenes expelled 700 families linked to Cleisthenes, and also wanted to establish a narrow [[oligarchy]] or a tyranny, by suppressing Athens' council (''[[Boule (ancient Greece)|boule]]'') and creating instead a new council of 300 men filled with Isagoras' supporters.<ref name=":9">Huxley, ''Early Sparta'', p. 81.</ref><ref>Ober, "'I Besieged That Man'", pp. 87, 88.</ref><ref>Paga, ''Building democracy'', p. 15. The chronology of Cleisthenes' reforms is uncertain. the boule could have still been the old council of [[Solon]] (with 400 members), or the new democratic one of Cleisthenes (with 500 members).</ref> However, the boule rejected the dissolution order; this act of resistance triggered a large revolt among the Athenians. Taken by surprise, Cleomenes and Isagoras sought shelter on the Acropolis, where they were besieged.<ref>Ober, "'I Besieged That Man'", pp. 88–94, makes this "revolution" the founding event of the Athenian democracy, when the people spontaneously rose against Cleomenes, therefore creating a collective political consciousness.</ref><ref>Paga, ''Building democracy'', p. 15.</ref>

While stuck on the Acropolis, Cleomenes tried to enter the [[Old Temple of Athena|Old Temple]] of [[Athena|Athena Polias]], but the priestess barred him access, saying that the temple was forbidden to [[Dorians]]—the ethnic group of the Spartans (Athenians were [[Ionians]]).<ref>Parker, ''Cleomenes on the Acropolis'', p. 10, mentions a similar interdiction against Dorians in [[Paros]], a colony of Athens.</ref><ref>Hornblower, ''Herodotus, Book V'', pp. 215, 216.</ref> Cleomenes likely wanted to show his strength by making a sacrifice in a forbidden place, which was a typical behaviour for conquerors and notably Spartan commanders.<ref>Parker, ''Cleomenes on the Acropolis'', pp. 24, 25, cites other instances, such as [[Agis II]] in [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]] during the [[Elean War]], [[Cleomenes III]] in c.222 in Argos, or [[Lysander]] in Athens in 404.</ref><ref>Hornblower, ''Herodotus, Book V'', p. 214.</ref> Even though the priestess of Athena was the most important cleric in Athens, Herodotus chose not to give her name in order to make her speak as the goddess resisting the Spartan invasion.<ref>Hornblower, ''Herodotus, Book V'', pp. 31, 214.</ref> Cleomenes famously replied: "Woman, I am not Dorian but Achaean".<ref>Parker, ''Cleomenes on the Acropolis'', p. 4.</ref><ref>Paga, ''Building democracy'', p. 15.</ref> In this context, the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] were the Greeks of [[Homer]]'s poems. The name recalls the ephor Chilon's policy of appropriating their heritage in the middle of the 6th-century.<ref>Ste. Croix, "Herodotus and King Cleomenes", p. 437.</ref><ref>Parker, ''Cleomenes on the Acropolis'', pp. 4, 5.</ref> A descendant of Chilon, Cleomenes therefore attempted to present himself as less alien to the Athenians by claiming an Achaean identity. His reply to the priestess also conveys a second meaning, as it can be translated by "I am not Dorieus", the name of his rival half-brother.<ref>Hornblower, ''Herodotus, Book V'', pp. 216, 217.</ref>

In the third day of the siege, Cleomenes realised that his position was hopeless, and negotiated a surrender: the Spartans were allowed to leave with Isagoras, but the supporters of the latter were massacred.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /><ref>Ober, "'I Besieged That Man'", pp. 92–94.</ref><ref>Paga, ''Building democracy'', p. 16, writes that Isagoras was killed too.</ref>

==== Boeotian War (506 BC) ====
Revengeful after the humiliation he suffered, Cleomenes set up a large coalition against Athens, gathering the Peloponnesian League, Boeotia, and [[Chalcis|Chalkis]] (on the island of [[Euboea]]), which pushed Athens to seek an alliance with Persia—another reason for Cleomenes' intervention.<ref>Berthold, "The Athenian Embassies to Sardis", p. 264.</ref> The goal was again to install Isagoras as tyrant. However, once the Peloponnesian army arrived at [[Eleusis]] in Western Attica, the Corinthians refused to continue and returned home. [[Demaratus]], the Eurypontid king, similarly disagreed with Cleomenes and took the rest of the allies with him back to the Peloponnese, thus effectively calling off the invasion. As a result, the Athenians easily defeated the Boeotians, then Chalkis.<ref name=":8" /> The most frequent explanation for the Corinthians' decision is that they ignored Cleomenes' plan to install a tyrant in Athens; they thought would be an unjust act once they learned about it.<ref>Ste. Croix, ''Origins of the Peloponnesian War'', p. 109.</ref> 

Several modern historians find this change of mood unconvincing and have offered alternative theories. Lawrence Tritle has suggested instead that after Cleomenes retreated from the Acropolis, he captured Eleusis and left Isagoras in charge there until his return with the full army. The following year, the Spartans and their allies discovered at Eleusis that Athens had retaken this city; without a secure base in Attica, the whole expedition appeared hopeless and was cancelled.<ref>Tritle, "Kleomenes at Eleusis", pp. 457–460.</ref> [[Simon Hornblower]] thinks that the Peloponnesians only learned about the alliance between Athens and Persia once they reached Eleusis, and they did not want to go to war with the latter.<ref>Hornblower, ''Herodotus, Book V'', p. 226.</ref>

While near Eleusis, Cleomenes may have destroyed some trees in the sacred area of the city, probably for military reasons.<ref>Hornblower, ''Herodotus, Book V'', p. 219.</ref>

This failed invasion had several consequences. Firstly, a law was passed in Sparta forbidding the two kings to go on campaign at the same time, in order to avoid another dangerous disagreement on the field. Secondly, the organisation of the Peloponnesian League was considerably amended. Sparta had to concede its allies the creation of a League congress, in which the allies could vote on declaring war and making peace.<ref>Forrest, ''History of Sparta'', p. 88.</ref><ref>Ste. Croix, ''Origins of the Peloponnesian War'', p. 109.</ref>

A few years later, possibly in 504, the first recorded congress of the Peloponnesian League took place in Sparta, during which the restoration of Hippias to Athens was debated. The Spartans wished to restore him because they said they had been tricked by the false oracles of the Alcmeonids, which prompted the removal of Hippias in 510. Hippias was present and pleaded his cause in Sparta, but the allies led by Corinth rejected the proposal.<ref>W G Forrest, A History of Sparta p89</ref> Hippias then left Greece for good, perhaps to the island of [[Chios]].<ref>Hornblower, ''Herodotus, Book V'', p. 191.</ref> Although some scholars have assumed this reversal of Sparta's foreign policy was Cleomenes' doing, it seems that he played no part in this, because Herodotus does not mention him at all. Ste.Croix instead writes that Sparta's support of Hippias came from Cleomenes' opponents in the city, who considered the new regime in Athens to be more hostile to Sparta than Hippias.<ref>Ste. Croix, "Herodotus and King Cleomenes", p. 424, writes that the congress cannot be precisely dated: "At some time in the last four years or so of the sixth century (I don’t think we can date it more closely than that)".</ref><ref>Hornblower, ''Herodotus, Book V'', pp. 244, 245, follows Ste.Croix.</ref>

=== The Ionian Revolt and its Aftermath ===
In 499, [[Aristagoras]], the tyrant of [[Miletus]], came to Sparta to request help from King Cleomenes with the [[Ionian Revolt]] against [[Achaemenid Empire|Persia]].  Aristagoras nearly persuaded Cleomenes to help, promising an easy conquest of Persia and its riches, but Cleomenes sent him away when he learned about the long distance to the heart of Persia.  Aristagoras attempted to bribe him by offering silver. Cleomenes declined, so Aristagoras began offering him more and more. According to [[Herodotus]], once Aristagoras offered Cleomenes 50 talents of silver, Cleomenes's young daughter [[Gorgo (Sparta)|Gorgo]] warned him not to trust a man who threatened to corrupt him.<ref>Herodotus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+5.51 5.51].</ref>

=== War against Argos (494 BC) ===
In 494, a fifty years' peace that had been signed between Sparta and Argos expired, leading to a new war. This peace had been possibly concluded after a Spartan victory for the control the [[Thyrea (Greece)|Thyreatis]], the border area between the two cities, won by Anaxandridas II.<ref>L. H. Jefery, "Greece before the Persian Invasion", in Boardman et al., ''Cambridge Ancient History, vol. IV'', pp. 363, 364.</ref> Cleomenes' motivations may have been either to weaken a rival in the Peloponnese, or to punish Argos for its [[Medism]].<ref name=":4">Cartledge, ''Sparta and Lakonia'', p. 128.</ref> The campaign only involved Sparta, not the Peloponnesian League, and perhaps only [[Spartiate|Spartian citizens]], without the [[perioeci]] who usually fought alongside them in battle. They were at least 2,000 Spartan soldiers, with an equal number of [[helots]].<ref name=":4" />

The Spartan army marched north through the [[Perioeci]]c city of [[Sellasia (Laconia)|Sellasia]], then [[Tegea]], whence they moved north-east towards Argos. The Argives however blocked the way at the river Erasinos.<ref name=":4" /> Cleomenes returned south to the [[Thyrea (Greece)|Thyreatis]], within Spartan territory, in order to board his troops into ships lent by [[Sicyon|Sikyon]] and [[Aegina]], two members of the Peloponnesian League.<ref name=":5">Ste. Croix, "Herodotus and King Cleomenes", p. 434.</ref> The ships landed on the other side of the [[Argolic Gulf]], at [[Tiryns]] and [[Nafplio|Nauplia]], two subject cities of Argos. A large pitched battle took place at Sepeia, near Tiryns, where the entire Argive army was wiped out, perhaps up to 6,000 men. Ste.Croix thinks the battle was "the greatest slaughter of hoplites [...] in any war between two Greek states".<ref>Ste. Croix, "Herodotus and King Cleomenes", p. 426.</ref><ref>Cartledge, ''Sparta and Lakonia'', p. 129, writes that this number was "surely exaggerated".</ref> The survivors fled to a sacred ground nearby, but Cleomenes put the grove on fire and killed the Argives.<ref>Herodotus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126:book=7:chapter=148&highlight=six+thousand%2C 7.148]; [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+3.4.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 3. 4. 1].</ref> He then dismissed most of his army but a thousand soldiers and moved to [[Mycenae]], in the northeast of Argos. On his way, he stopped at the [[Heraion of Argos|Heraion]] of Argos, the great temple of [[Hera]], where he committed another sacrilege by flogging the priest who tried to prevent him from performing a sacrifice in the temple. In both cases, Cleomenes had ordered his accompanying helots to commit the sacrileges, probably to shield the Spartiates from the religious consequences.<ref>Cartledge, ''Sparta and Lakonia'', p. 129.</ref>

Cleomenes remained in the vicinity of Argos in the aftermath of the battle in order to create two independent city-states out of Tiryns and Mycenae, thus cutting Argos' access to its best harbour at Nauplia.<ref name=":5" /> The reason behind this move was to durably weaken Argos, and possibly to hinder it from receiving troops from Persia.<ref name=":5" /> Mycenae and Tiryns joined the Peloponnesian League and remained good allies of Sparta.<ref>Ste. Croix, ''Origins of the Peloponnesian War'', p. 123.</ref> Despite his crushing victory against Argos, Cleomenes did not try to capture the city, possibly because its defences were too strong, or he failed to install a friendly government.<ref name=":6">Forrest, ''History of Sparta'', p. 90.</ref><ref>Hornblower & Pelling, ''Herodotus, Book VI'', p. 197.</ref> On his return to Sparta, Cleomenes was accused of bribery before the ephors for having spared Argos after the battle.  A trial took place before the [[Gerousia]] or the [[Ecclesia (Sparta)|ecclesia]].<ref>David, "The Trial of Spartan Kings", p. 136, favours a trial before the ecclesia.</ref> Cleomenes explained that after having taken the sacred grove of Argos, the oracle's forecast regarding the capture of Argos had been fulfilled—since they shared the same name, and was therefore acquitted.<ref name=":6" /><ref>Hornblower & Pelling, ''Herodotus, Book VI'', pp. 197–199.</ref>

=== Deposition of Demaratus (491 BC) ===
When the Persians invaded [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] after putting down the Ionian revolt in 493, many [[city-state]]s quickly submitted to them fearing a loss of trade.  Among these states was [[Aegina]]. So in 491, Cleomenes attempted to arrest the major collaborators there. The citizens of Aegina would not cooperate with him and the Eurypontid Spartan king, [[Demaratus]] attempted to undermine his efforts. Cleomenes overthrew Demaratus, after first bribing the oracle at Delphi to announce that this was the divine will, and replaced him with [[Leotychidas]].