Editing Cognitive neuroscience (section)

===19th century===

====Phrenology====
[[File:Phrenology journal (1848).jpg|thumb|right|upright|A page from the ''American Phrenological Journal'']]
{{Main|Phrenology}}
One of the predecessors to cognitive neuroscience was [[phrenology]], a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] approach that claimed that behavior could be determined by the shape of the [[scalp]]. In the early 19th century, [[Franz Joseph Gall]] and [[J. G. Spurzheim]] believed that the human brain was localized into approximately 35 different sections. In his book, The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular, Gall claimed that a larger bump in one of these areas meant that that area of the brain was used more frequently by that person. This theory gained significant public attention, leading to the publication of phrenology journals and the creation of phrenometers, which measured the bumps on a human subject's head. While phrenology remained a fixture at fairs and carnivals, it did not enjoy wide acceptance within the scientific community.{{sfn|Bear|Connors|Paradiso|2007|pp=10–11}} The major criticism of phrenology is that researchers were not able to test theories empirically.{{sfn|Kosslyn|Andersen|1995|p={{pn|date=March 2025}}}}

====Localizationist view====
The localizationist view was concerned with mental abilities being localized to specific areas of the brain rather than on what the characteristics of the abilities were and how to measure them.{{sfn|Kosslyn|Andersen|1995|p={{pn|date=March 2025}}}} Studies performed in Europe, such as those of [[John Hughlings Jackson]], supported this view. Jackson studied patients with [[brain damage]], particularly those with [[epilepsy]]. He discovered that the epileptic patients often made the same [[clonus|clonic]] and tonic movements of muscle during their seizures, leading Jackson to believe that they must be caused by activity in the same place in the brain every time. Jackson proposed that specific functions were localized to specific areas of the brain,<ref>Enersen, O. D. 2009</ref> which was critical to future understanding of the [[brain lobes]].

====Aggregate field view====
According to the aggregate field view, all areas of the brain participate in every mental function.<ref name="Erickson-Davis"/>

[[Pierre Flourens]], a French experimental psychologist, challenged the localizationist view by using animal experiments.{{sfn|Kosslyn|Andersen|1995|p={{pn|date=March 2025}}}} He discovered that removing the [[cerebellum]] (brain) in rabbits and pigeons affected their sense of muscular coordination, and that all cognitive functions were disrupted in pigeons when the [[cerebral hemisphere]]s were removed. From this he concluded that the [[cerebral cortex]], [[cerebellum]], and [[brainstem]] functioned together as a whole.<ref name = "Boring, E.G. (1957). A history of experimental psychology. New York. ">Boring, E.G. (1957). A history of experimental psychology. New York.{{pn|date=March 2025}}</ref> His approach has been criticised on the basis that the tests were not sensitive enough to notice selective deficits had they been present.{{sfn|Kosslyn|Andersen|1995|p={{pn|date=March 2025}}}}

====Emergence of neuropsychology====
Perhaps the first serious attempts to localize mental functions to specific locations in the brain was by [[Paul Broca|Broca]] and [[Carl Wernicke|Wernicke]]. This was mostly achieved by studying the effects of injuries to different parts of the brain on psychological functions.<ref name=Uttal2011/> In 1861, French neurologist Paul Broca came across a man with a disability who was able to understand the language but unable to speak. The man could only produce the sound "tan". It was later discovered that the man had damage to an area of his left frontal lobe now known as [[Broca's area]]. Carl Wernicke, a [[Germany|German]] [[neurologist]], found a patient who could speak fluently but non-sensibly. The patient had been the victim of a [[stroke]], and could not understand spoken or written language. This patient had a lesion in the area where the left parietal and temporal lobes meet, now known as [[Wernicke's area]]. These cases, which suggested that lesions caused specific behavioral changes, strongly supported the localizationist view. Additionally, Aphasia is a learning disorder which was also discovered by Paul Broca. According to, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Aphasia is a language disorder caused by damage in a specific area of the brain that controls language expression and comprehension.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aphasia |url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/aphasia |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.hopkinsmedicine.org |language=en}}</ref> This can often lead to the person speaking words with no sense known as "word salad" <ref>{{Cite web |title=Wernicke area {{!}} Definition, Location, Function, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Wernicke-area |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

====Mapping the brain====
In 1870, German physicians [[Eduard Hitzig]] and [[Gustav Fritsch]] published their findings of the behavior of animals. Hitzig and Fritsch ran an electric current through the cerebral cortex of a dog, causing different muscles to contract depending on which areas of the brain were electrically stimulated. This led to the proposition that individual functions are localized to specific areas of the brain rather than the cerebrum as a whole, as the aggregate field view suggests.<ref name="Fritsch & Hitzig 2009"/> [[Korbinian Brodmann|Brodmann]] was also an important figure in brain mapping; his experiments based on Franz Nissl's tissue staining techniques divided the brain into fifty-two areas.