Editing Conceptual metaphor (section)

=== Historical ===
In the Western philosophical tradition, [[Aristotle]] is often situated as the first commentator on the nature of metaphor, writing in the ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'', "A 'metaphorical term' involves the transferred use of a term that properly belongs to something else,"<ref>Aristotle. ''Poetics''.English text: D.A. Russell and M. Winterbottom (eds.), in ''Ancient Literary Criticism: The Principal Texts in New Translation.'' Oxford: Oxford UP, 1972.</ref> and elsewhere in the ''[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]]'' he says that metaphors make learning pleasant; "To learn easily is naturally pleasant to all people, and words signify something, so whatever words create knowledge in us are the pleasantest."<ref>Aristotle, W. Rhys Roberts, Ingram Bywater, and Friedrich Solmsen. Rhetoric. New York: Modern Library, 1954. Print.</ref> Aristotle's writings on metaphor constitute a "substitution view" of metaphor, wherein a metaphor is simply a decorative word or phrase substituted for a more ordinary one. This has been sometimes called the "Traditional View of Metaphor"<ref name=":0">Soskice, Janet. ''Metaphor and Religious Language''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985.</ref> and at other times the "Classical Theory of Metaphor".<ref name=":1">Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson. ''Metaphors We Live By''. Chicago: Chicago UP, 1980.</ref> Later in the first century A.D., the Roman rhetorician [[Quintilian]] builds upon Aristotle's earlier work of metaphor by focusing more on the comparative function of metaphorical language. In his work ''[[Institutio Oratoria]],'' Quintilian states," In totum autem metaphora brevior est similitudo" or "on the whole, metaphor is a shorter form of simile".<ref>Quintilian. ''Institutio Oratoria''. Trans. H.E. Butler. London: William Heinemann, 1921. Vol. III.</ref> Other philosophers throughout history have lent their perspectives to the discussion of metaphor as well. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] for example, claimed that language as a whole did not portray reality but instead made a series of bold metaphors. Nietzsche believed that each step of cognition, the transfer of real world information to nerve stimuli, the culmination of nerve stimuli into mental images, the translation of mental images to words, was metaphorical.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche|last=Nietzsche|first=Friedrich|publisher=Delphi Classics}}</ref> Modern interpretations of these early theories have also been intensely debated. [[Janet Soskice]], Professor of [[Philosophical theology|Philosophical Theology]] at the [[University of Cambridge]], writes in summary that "it is certain that we shall taste the freshness of their insights only if we free them from the obligation to answer questions that were never theirs to ask".<ref name=":0" /> George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, although originally taking a hard-line interpretation of these early authors<ref name=":1" /><ref>Wood, Matthew S. "Aristotle's Theory of Metaphor Revisited." ''Mouseion: Journal of the&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Classical Association of Canada'', 14.1 (2017): 63-90. Print.</ref> later concede that Aristotle was working within a different philosophical framework from what we engage with today and that critical interpretations should take this in to account.<ref>Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. ''Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Philosophy''. New York: Basic Books, 1999.</ref>