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Conceptualism
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=== Modern philosophy === Conceptualism was either explicitly or implicitly embraced by most of the [[Early modern philosophy|early modern]] thinkers, including [[RenΓ© Descartes]], [[John Locke]], [[Baruch Spinoza]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[George Berkeley]], and [[David Hume]] β often in a quite simplified form if compared with the elaborate scholastic theories.<ref>[[David Bostock (philosopher)|David Bostock]], ''Philosophy of Mathematics: An Introduction'', Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, p. 43: "All of Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume supposed that mathematics is a theory of our ''ideas'', but none of them offered any argument for this conceptualist claim, and apparently took it to be uncontroversial."</ref><ref>Stefano Di Bella, Tad M. Schmaltz (eds.), ''The Problem of Universals in Early Modern Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 2017, p. 64 "there is a strong case to be made that Spinoza was a ''conceptualist'' about universals" and p. 207 n. 25: "Leibniz's conceptualism [is related to] the Ockhamist tradition..."</ref> Sometimes the term is applied even to the radically different philosophy of [[Immanuel Kant]], who holds that universals have no connection with things as they are in themselves because they (universals) are exclusively produced by our ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' mental structures and functions, even though the ''[[Category (Kant)|categories]]'' have an objective validity for objects of experience (that is, phenomena).<ref name="Kant" /><ref>Oberst, Michael. 2015. "Kant on Universals." ''History of Philosophy Quarterly'' '''32'''(4):335β352.</ref> In [[late modern philosophy]], conceptualist views were held by [[G. W. F. Hegel]].<ref>A. Sarlemijn, ''Hegel's Dialectic'', Springer, 1975, p. 21.</ref>
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