Editing David and Jonathan (section)

== Views ==

=== Jewish interpretation ===

The sages characterized the relationship between Jonathan and David in the following [[Mishnah]]: <blockquote>“Whenever love depends on some selfish end, when the end passes away, the love passes away; but if it does not depend on some selfish end, it will never pass away. Which love depended on a selfish end? This was the love of Amnon and Tamar. And which did not depend on a selfish end? This was the love of David and Jonathan. (Avot 5:16)"<ref name="autogenerated2004">{{Cite web|url=http://www.uscj.org/israelcenter/haftarah/Toldot5765.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091126014202/http://www.uscj.org/israelcenter/haftarah/Toldot5765.html|url-status=dead|title=Parshat Toldot, Mahar Hodesh,(1 Samuel 20:18–42) November 13, 2004|archivedate=November 26, 2009}}</ref></blockquote>

[[Simeon ben Zemah Duran|Rabbi Shimon ben Tzemach Duran]] (Spain, North Africa 14th–15th century) delineated the significance of this mishnah: <blockquote>“Anyone who establishes a friendship for access to power, money, or sexual relations; when these ends are not attainable, the friendship ceases…love that is not dependent on selfish ends is true love of the other person since there is no intended end.” (Magen Avot – abridged and adapted translation)<ref name="autogenerated2004"/></blockquote>

=== Traditional Christian interpretation ===
[[File:Saul Tries to Kill David by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld.png|thumb|200px|left|"Saul Tries to Kill David" by [[Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld]]]]
In Christian tradition, David and Jonathan's love is understood as the intimate camaraderie between two young soldiers with no sexual involvement.<ref>[http://www.ewordtoday.com/comments/1samuel/mh/1samuel18.htm Matthew Henry, 1Samuel 18:1–5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625073708/http://www.ewordtoday.com/comments/1samuel/mh/1samuel18.htm |date=2010-06-25 }}; 2Samual 1:17–27</ref> David's abundance of wives and [[concubines]] is emphasized, alongside his adulterous affair with [[Bathsheba]], and that he only experienced impotence as an old man, while having his five-year-old son Jonathan at his death.<ref>James B. deYoung, ''Homosexuality'', p. 290</ref>

In response to the argument that homoeroticism was edited out, some traditionalists who subscribe to the [[Documentary Hypothesis]] note the significance of the lack of censoring of the descriptions at issue, in spite of the Levitical injunctions against homoerotic contact. Gagnon states, "The narrator’s willingness to speak of David’s vigorous heterosexual life (compare the relationship with Bathsheba) puts in stark relief his (their) complete silence about any sexual activity between David and Jonathan."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.robgagnon.net/articles/homosexNewsweekMillerResp.pdf|title=Prof. Dr. Robert A. J. Gagnon}}</ref>

Presuming such editing would have taken place, Martti Nissinen comments, "Their mutual love was certainly regarded by the editors as faithful and passionate, but without unseemly allusions to forbidden practices ... Emotional and even physical closeness of two males did not seem to concern the editors of the story, nor was such a relationship prohibited by [[Leviticus]]." [[Homosociality]] is not seen as being part of the sexual [[taboo]] in the biblical world.<ref>Martti Nissinen, Kirsi Stjerna, ''Homoeroticism in the Biblical World'', p. 56</ref>

=== Medieval and Renaissance allusions ===
[[File:Jonathan Embraces David from Caspar Luiken.jpg|thumbnail|Jonathan embraces David from [[Caspar Luiken]]'s {{lang|la|Historiae Celebriores Veteris Testamenti Iconibus Representatae}} (1712)]]
[[Medieval]] literature occasionally drew upon the biblical relationship between David and Jonathan to underline strong personal, intimate friendships and homoerotic relationships between men.<ref>Rocke, Michael. 1996. ''Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and Male Culture in Renaissance Florence''. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}</ref>

The anonymous {{lang|la|[[Vita Edwardi Secundi]]}}, {{circa|1326 AD}}, wrote: "Indeed I do remember to have heard that one man so loved another. Jonathan cherished David, [[Achilles]] loved [[Patroclus]]." And thus, [[King Edward II]] wept for his dead lover [[Piers Gaveston]] as: "... David had mourned for Jonathan.".<ref>W.R. Childs, Ed. (2005). ''Vita Edwardi Secundi''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-927594-7}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}</ref> Similarly, [[Roger of Hoveden]], a twelfth-century chronicler, deliberately drew comparisons in his description of "The King of France ([[Philip II Augustus]]) [who] loved him ([[Richard the Lionheart]]) as his own soul."<ref>Roger of Hoveden, ''The Annals'', trans. Henry T. Riley, 2.&nbsp;Vols. London: H.G. Bohn, 1853; repr. New York: AMS Press, 1968{{page needed|date=December 2021}}</ref>

The Renaissance artists [[Donatello]] and [[Michelangelo]] both brought out strong [[homoerotic]] elements in their sculptural depictions of the youthful David, which were [[David (Donatello, marble)|bronze]] and [[David (Michelangelo)|marble]], respectively.<ref>Rocke, Michael. 1996. ''Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and Male Culture in Renaissance Florence''. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>

=== Modern interpretations ===

==== Homoeroticism ====
[[File:David and Jonathan.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''David and Jonathan''<br />The biblical account of David and Jonathan has been read by some as the story of two lovers.<br />{{lang|fr|"La Somme le Roi"}}, AD 1290; French illuminated ms (detail); British Museum]]

Some modern scholars and writers have interpreted the love between David and Jonathan as a [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] relationship. This was first pioneered by Tom Horner,<ref>Horner, Tom M. ''Jonathan Loved David: Homosexuality in Biblical Times.'' The Westminster John Knox Press, Pennsylvania, 1978, {{ISBN|0664241859}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}</ref> then adopted by [[John Boswell]].<ref>Boswell, John. ''Same-sex Unions in Premodern Europe.'' New York: Vintage, 1994. (pp. 135–137){{ISBN?}}</ref> 

The story of David and Jonathan is introduced in [[Samuel 1]] (18:1), where it says that "Jonathan became one in spirit with David, and he loved him as himself", something that modern scholars have described as ''[[philia]]'' or [[love at first sight]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Love at First Sight? David, Jonathan, and the Biblical Politics of Gender|author=Yaron Peleg|doi=10.1177/0309089205060606|page=176|year=2005|journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament|volume=30|issue=2|s2cid=145510830}}</ref>{{efn|In the text, the attraction of Jonathan to David begins almost immediately, as Saul is delighted by his new companion. This attraction is given extravagant expression. In the first place it appears to be love (''philia'') at first sight. We are told: "When David had finished speaking to Saul, the soul of Jonathan was bound to the soul of David" (1 Sam 18:1). It seems unlikely that it was caused by something David has said, since what David said to Saul immediately preceding is only "I am the son of your servant Jesse the Bethlehemite" (17:58). [[Joyce Baldwin]] suggests that this indicates that Jonathan recognised David as the future king.{{sfn|Baldwin|1988|p=135}}}} For [[Theodore Jennings]], it is clear that Jonathan's "immediate" attraction to David was caused by his beauty:<ref>{{cite book |title=Jacob's Wound: Homoerotic narrative in the literature of ancient Israel |page=25 |author=Theodore W. Jennings Jr. |year=2005 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0826417121}}{{page needed|date=December 2021}}</ref><blockquote>"As we have noticed, the attraction of Jonathan to David begins almost immediately as Saul is delighted in his new companion. This attraction is given extravagant expression. In the first place it appears to be love at first sight. We are told: "When David had finished speaking to Saul, the soul of Jonathan was bound to the soul of David" (1 Sam 18:1). Is it something David has said? Not likely. For what David has said to Saul is "I am the son of your servant Jesse the Bethlehemite" (17:58). It is not something David has said. Instead, the reader's gaze has twice been directed to David's extraordinary beauty." </blockquote>

The relationship between David and Jonathan has also been compared more explicitly to other homoerotic relationships in Near Eastern literature, including by [[Cyrus H. Gordon]], who noted the instance in the [[Book of Jashar]], excerpted in [[Samuel 2]] (1:26), in which David "proclaims that Jonathan's love was sweeter to him than the love of a woman", as being similar to both [[Achilles]]' comparison of [[Patroclus]] to a girl and [[Gilgamesh]]'s love for [[Enkidu]] "as a woman".{{sfnm|Gordon|1955|1p=89|Horner|1978|2p=19}}

David's praise in {{bibleverse|2 Samuel|1:26|NASB}} for Jonathan's love (for him) over the love of women has been read as evidence for same-sex attraction, along with Saul's exclamation to his son at the dinner table, "I know you have chosen the son of Jesse – which is a disgrace to yourself and the nakedness of your mother!" According to some biblical scholars, the "choosing" ({{transliteration|he|bahar}}) indicates a permanent choice and firm homoerotic relationship, and the mention of "nakedness" ({{transliteration|he|erwa}}) is to convey a negative sexual nuance, which would give the impression that Saul saw something indecent in Jonathan and David's relationship.<ref>Martti Nissinen, ''Homoeroticism in the Biblical World'', Minneapolis, 1998</ref>

Some also point out that the relationship between the two men is addressed with the same words and emphasis as other love relationships in the Hebrew Testament, whether heterosexual or between God and people, such as {{transliteration|he|ahava}} or {{lang|he|אהבה}}.&lrm;<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160701201653/https://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/words.pl?word=0160 Hebrew word #160]</ref><ref>{{bibleverse||Genesis|29:20|HE}}, {{bibleverse|2|Samuel|13:15|HE}}, {{bibleverse||Proverbs|5:19|HE}}, {{bibleverse|Song of Songs|2:4–7|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb|Sg.|3:5–10|HE}}, {{bibleverse-nb|Sg.|5:8|HE}}</ref>

There is more than mere homosociality in the dealings of David and Jonathan, as asserted by two 21st century studies: the biblical scholar [[Susan Ackerman (biblical scholar)|Susan Ackerman]],<ref>[[Susan Ackerman (biblical scholar)|Susan Ackerman]] (2005), ''When Heroes Love: The Ambiguity of Eros in the Stories of Gilgamesh and David'', New York & Chichester, Columbia University Press, pp. 165–231</ref> and the Orientalist Jean-Fabrice Nardelli.<ref>''Homosexuality and Liminality in the Gilgamesh and Samuel'' (Amsterdam, Hakkert, 2007), pp. 28–63</ref> Ackerman and Nardelli argue that the narrators of the books of Samuel encrypted same-sex allusions in the texts where David and Jonathan interact so as to insinuate that the two heroes were lovers. Ackerman explains this as a case of liminal, viz. transitory, homosexuality, deployed by the redactors as a textual means to assert David's rights against Jonathan's: the latter willingly alienated his princely status by bowing down ({{bibleverse|1 Samuel|20:41|NASB}}), sexually speaking, to the former. Nardelli disagrees and argues that the various covenants Jonathan engaged David into as the superior partner gradually elevated David's status and may be seen as marriage-like.

Susan Ackerman also argues that there is highly eroticized language present in six different sections in the Hebrew Bible in regards to the relationship of David and Jonathan.<ref name="google1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATKodvnYS4EC&q=When+Heroes+Love:.+The+Ambiguity+of+Eros+in+the+Stories+of+Gilgamesh+and+David |title=When Heroes Love: The Ambiguity Of Eros In The Stories Of Gilgamesh And David |via=Google Books |access-date=2012-05-09 |isbn=9780231132602 |last1=Ackerman |first1=Susan |year=2005 |publisher=Columbia University Press }}</ref> The six sections she mentions are:
# David and Jonathan's first meeting in 1 Sam. 18:1–4 
# the description of David and Jonathan's first few meetings in 1 Sam. 19:1–7
# the incident of Saul berating Jonathan for his friendship with David in 1 Sam. 20:30–34 
# David fleeing from the court of King Saul in 1 Sam. 20:1–42 
# the description of David and Jonathan's final meeting in 1 Sam. 23:15–18
# David's lament (the Song of the Bow) for Saul and Jonathan in 2 Sam. 1:17–27
Of these six examples, Ackerman identifies the most important example being the last one (the Song of the Bow) due to David's assertion that Jonathan's love to David "was more wonderful than the love of women".<ref name="google1"/>

Although David was married, David himself articulates a distinction between his relationship with Jonathan and the bonds he shares with women. David is married to many women, one of whom is Jonathan's sister Michal, but the Bible does not mention David loving Michal (though it is stated that Michal loves David).

[[Martti Nissinen]] has concluded:<ref>Martti Nissinen, Homoeroticism in the Biblical World, Minneapolis, 1998</ref>
<blockquote>
Perhaps these homosocial relationships, based on love and equality, are more comparable with modern homosexual people's experience of themselves than those texts that explicitly speak of homosexual acts that are aggressive, violent expressions of domination and subjection.
</blockquote>

A number of groups made up of gay Roman Catholics trying to reconcile their faith with their sexuality have also adopted the names: Davide e Gionata (Italy), and David et Jonathan (France).<ref>John Cornwall, ''Breaking faith: The pope, the people and the future of catholicism'', Viking, 2001{{page needed|date=December 2021}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>

==== Counter-arguments ====
{{refimprove section|reason=The "These interpreters also argue..." paragraph and the following paragraph is unsourced/[[WP:RSPSCRIPTURE]] sourced. Needs better sourcing or removal.|date=March 2024}}
[[File:Gottfried Bernhard Göz - Jonathan greeting David after David killed Goliath.jpg|thumb|200px|Jonathan greeting David after killing Goliath, 18th century illustration by [[Gottfried Bernhard Göz]]]]
Other interpreters point out that neither the books of Samuel nor Jewish tradition documents sanctioned romantic or erotic physical intimacy between the two characters, which the Bible elsewhere makes evident when between heterosexuals, most supremely in the [[Song of Solomon]]. It is also known that covenants were common, <!-- and that the word is never used to denote marriage between man and women,<ref>International Standard Bible Encyclopedia</ref> --> <!-- counterexample: Malachi 2:14 --> and that marriage was a public event and included customs not seen in this story.<ref>Albert Barnes, Judges 14:10</ref><ref>Sketches of Jewish Social Life. Cp. 9 (Edersheim)</ref>

The platonic interpretation of David and Jonathan's relationship is advocated by the religious writer [[Robert A. J. Gagnon|R.A.J. Gagnon]]<ref name=Gagnon-2001>{{cite book |last=Gagnon |first=R.A.J. |author-link=Robert A. J. Gagnon |year=2001 |title=The Bible and Homosexual Practice. Texts and hermeneutics |place=Nashville, TN |publisher=Abingdon Press |pages=146–154}}</ref> and the Assyriologist Markus Zehnder<ref>Observations on the Relationship Between David and Jonathan and the Debate on Homosexuality, ''Westminster Theological Journal'' 69 (2007), pp. 127–174</ref> and is consistent with commonly held theological views condemning same sex relations.<ref>"Welcoming But Not Affirming," by [[Stanley J. Grenz]]</ref>

The removal of the robe is seen as a ceremonial act following the precedent of Aaron, of whom God commanded, "And strip Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son",<ref>Numbers 20:26; cf. Esther 3:6</ref> in transference of the office of the former upon the latter. In like manner, Jonathan would be symbolically and prophetically transferring the kingship of himself (as the normal heir) to David, which would come to pass.<ref name=Gagnon-2001/><ref>Markus Zehnder, “Observations on the Relationship between David and Jonathan and the Debate on Homosexuality,” Westminster Theological Journal 69.1 [2007]: 127–174)</ref><ref>Thomas E Schmidt, “Straight or Narrow?”</ref>

Even if the mention of "nakedness" in 1 Samuel 20:30 could be interpreted to convey a negative sexual nuance, it is related to Jonathan's mother [[Ahinoam]] rather than Jonathan ("to the shame of the nakedness of your mother"). [[Jon Levenson]] and [[Baruch Halpern]] suggest that the phrase suggests "David's theft of Saul's wife", and that the verse supports the construction that Ahinoam, the wife of Saul is the same Ahinoam who became David's wife.<ref>[[Jon D. Levenson]] and [[Baruch Halpern]], "The Political Import of David's Marriages," ''[[Journal of Biblical Literature|JBL]]'' 99 [1980] 515.</ref> This event, however, is never described in the Bible, and this particular interpretation has been disputed by Diana V. Edelman, who remarked that, "Such a presumption would require David to have run off with the queen mother while Saul was still on the throne, which seems unlikely."<ref>Edelman, Diana. "Ahinoam (Person)", The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary. (David Noel Freedman. ed.) New York: Doubleday, 1992, 1:118</ref>

In platonic respects, such as in sacrificial loyalty and zeal for the kingdom, Jonathan's love is seen as surpassing that of romantic or erotic affection,<ref>Matthew Henry{{full citation needed|date=February 2021}}</ref> especially that of the women David had known up until that time. The grammatical and social difficulties are pointed out in respect to 1 Samuel 18:21,<ref>Keil and Delitzsch; and is seen as referring to Merab and Michal: John Gill; T. Bab. Sanhedrin, fol. 19.2.</ref> as well as the marked difference in the Bible between sensual kissing (as in ''[[Song of Songs]]'') and the social kiss of Near Eastern cultures, whether in greeting, or as expression of deep affection between friends and family (as found throughout the Old and New Testaments).<ref name=Gagnon-2001/> The strong emotive language expressed by David towards Jonathan is also argued to be akin to that of platonic expressions in more expressive or pre-urban cultures.<ref>Regan, P. C; Jerry, D; Narvaez, M; Johnson, D. "Public displays of affection among Asian and Latino heterosexual couples". ''Psychological Reports''. 1999; 84:1201–1202</ref>

Orly Keren of the [[Kaye Academic College of Education]] additionally posits that the relationship between Jonathan and David was not without [[enlightened self-interest]] on both sides: Jonathan in obtaining guarantees for his own future and that of his family, and David in creating and maintaining a public image. Keren suggests that David's lament for Jonathan may have been a calculated pose for a people mourning a popular prince.<ref>[http://jot.sagepub.com/content/37/1/3.abstract Keren, Orly. "David and Jonathan: A case of unconditional love?"], ''[[Journal for the Study of the Old Testament]]'' September 2012, vol. 37 no. 13–23, {{doi|10.1177/0309089212455544}}</ref>