Editing Deep Blue (chess computer) (section)

== Aftermath ==
===Chess===
Kasparov initially called Deep Blue an "alien opponent", but later belittled it, stating that it was "as intelligent as your alarm clock".<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 April 2020 |title=On this day: Born April 13, 1963; Russian chess champion Garry Kasparov |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sport-anniversary-kasparov/on-this-day-born-april-13-1963-russian-chess-champion-garry-kasparov-idUSKCN21U060 |access-date=18 August 2021 |last=Baldwin |first=Alan |archive-date=2 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102103220/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sport-anniversary-kasparov/on-this-day-born-april-13-1963-russian-chess-champion-garry-kasparov-idUSKCN21U060 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to [[Martin Amis]], two grandmasters who played Deep Blue agreed that it was "like a wall coming at you".<ref>{{Harvnb|Amis|2011|page=vii}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Barrat|2013|page=13}}</ref> Hsu had the rights to use the Deep Blue design independently of IBM, but also independently declined Kasparov's rematch offer.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=13 January 2000 |title=Owen Williams replies to Feng-hsiung Hsu |url=http://www.chess.co.uk/twic/owenfeng.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729131411/http://www.chess.co.uk/twic/owenfeng.html |archive-date=29 July 2012 |access-date=11 May 2012 |journal=The Week in Chess}}</ref> In 2003, the [[documentary film]] ''[[Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine]]'' investigated Kasparov's claims that IBM had cheated. In the film, some interviewees describe IBM's investment in Deep Blue as an effort to boost its stock value.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Game Over' : Did IBM Cheat Kasparov? |url=http://chess.about.com/library/weekly/aa05f04.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012234501/http://chess.about.com/library/weekly/aa05f04.htm |archive-date=12 October 2007 |access-date=4 June 2020 |website=About.com: Chess |date=June 2005}}</ref>

===Other games===
Following Deep Blue's victory, [[artificial intelligence|AI]] specialist Omar Syed designed a new game, [[Arimaa]], which was intended to be very simple for humans but very difficult for computers to master;<ref>{{Harvnb|Syed|Syed|2003|page=138}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Deep Blue: Cultural Impacts |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/deepblue/impacts/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330200410/http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/deepblue/impacts/ |archive-date=30 March 2014 |access-date=5 June 2020 |work=IBM100 |publisher=IBM}}</ref> however, in 2015, computers proved capable of defeating strong Arimaa players.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wu|2015|page=19}}</ref> Since Deep Blue's victory, computer scientists have developed software for other complex board games with competitive communities. The AlphaGo series ([[AlphaGo]], [[AlphaGo Zero]], [[AlphaZero]]) defeated top [[Go (game)|Go]] players in 2016–2017.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last1=Silver|first1=David|last2=Hubert|first2=Thomas|last3=Schrittwieser|first3=Julian|last4=Antonoglou|first4=Ioannis|last5=Lai|first5=Matthew|last6=Guez|first6=Arthur|last7=Lanctot|first7=Marc|last8=Sifre|first8=Laurent|last9=Kumaran|first9=Dharshan|last10=Graepel|first10=Thore|last11=Lillicrap|first11=Timothy|display-authors=3|date=6 December 2018|title=A general reinforcement learning algorithm that masters chess, shogi, and Go through self-play|url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10069050/1/alphazero_preprint.pdf|journal=Science|volume=362|issue=6419|pages=1140–1144|doi=10.1126/science.aar6404|pmid=30523106|bibcode=2018Sci...362.1140S|s2cid=54457125|access-date=4 January 2022|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901220135/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10069050/1/alphazero_preprint.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=27 May 2017|title=Google's AlphaGo retires on top after humbling world No. 1|url=https://phys.org/news/2017-05-google-alphago-humbling-world.html|url-status=live|access-date=4 January 2022|website=phys.org|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170528000109/https://phys.org/news/2017-05-google-alphago-humbling-world.html |archive-date=28 May 2017}}</ref>

===Computer science===
Computer scientists such as Deep Blue developer Campbell believed that playing chess was a good measurement for the effectiveness of artificial intelligence, and by beating a world champion chess player, IBM showed that they had made significant progress.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Greenemeier |first=Larry |title=20 Years after Deep Blue: How AI Has Advanced Since Conquering Chess |language=en |work=Scientific American |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-how-ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/ |access-date=29 June 2018 |date=2 June 2017 |archive-date=30 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630025017/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-how-ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Deep Blue is also responsible for the popularity of using games as a display medium for artificial intelligence, as in the cases of [[IBM Watson]] or [[AlphaGo]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.3390/ai3020021 | doi-access=free | title=Shifting Perspectives on AI Evaluation: The Increasing Role of Ethics in Cooperation | year=2022 | last1=Barbierato | first1=Enrico | last2=Zamponi | first2=Maria Enrica | journal=AI | volume=3 | issue=2 | pages=331–352 | hdl=10807/259716 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>

While Deep Blue, with its capability of evaluating 200&nbsp;million positions per second,<ref>{{cite news|last=Strogatz|first=Steven|date=26 December 2018|title=One Giant Step for a Chess-Playing Machine|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/26/science/chess-artificial-intelligence.html|access-date=4 January 2022|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=4 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104004951/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/26/science/chess-artificial-intelligence.html|url-status=live}}</ref> was the first computer to face a world chess champion in a formal match,<ref name=":0" /> it was a then-state-of-the-art [[expert system]], relying upon rules and variables defined and fine-tuned by chess masters and computer scientists. In contrast, current chess engines such as [[Leela Chess Zero]] typically use [[reinforcement learning|reinforcement]] [[machine learning]] systems that train a [[artificial neural network|neural network]] to play, developing its own internal logic rather than relying upon rules defined by human experts.<ref name=":1" />

In a November 2006 match between Deep Fritz and world chess champion [[Vladimir Kramnik]], the program ran on a computer system containing a dual-core [[List of Intel Xeon processors (Core-based)#"Woodcrest" (65 nm)|Intel Xeon 5160 CPU]], capable of evaluating only 8&nbsp;million positions per second, but searching to an average depth of 17 to 18 [[Ply (game theory)|plies]] (half-moves) in the [[Chess middlegame|middlegame]] thanks to [[heuristic]]s; it won 4–2.<ref>{{cite news |last=Schulz |first=André |title=Das letzte Match Mensch gegen Maschine? |trans-title=The last man vs machine match? |url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/the-last-man-vs-machine-match- |language=de |newspaper=Der Spiegel |translator-last=ChessBase Chess News |date=23 November 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016172318/http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3504 |archive-date=16 October 2012 |access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 December 2006 |title=Chess champion loses to computer |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6212076.stm |url-status=live |access-date=4 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231112514/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6212076.stm |archive-date=31 December 2007}}</ref>