Editing Development communication (section)

== Academic schools ==

Various schools of development communication arose in response to challenges and opportunities in individual countries. Manyozo (2006) broke the field into six schools. The "Bretton Woods" school was originally dominant in international literature. The others were the Latin American, Indian, African, Los Baños and participatory schools.<ref name="ManyozoAJC" />

=== Catholic social change ===

While not per se an academic school, the Church has been conducting "development communication" for many decades. The [[Catholic Church]]'s social teachings and [[moral norm]]s parallel those of social development. ''[[Rerum novarum]]'' (On the New Things), for example, an encyclical written in 1891 by [[Pope Leo XIII]] critiqued social ills and promoted "the Catholic doctrine on work, the [[right to property]], the principle of collaboration instead of [[class struggle]] as the fundamental means for social change, the rights of the weak, the dignity of the poor and the obligations of the rich, the perfecting of justice through charity, on the right to form professional associations"<ref>{{cite book |title=Guidelines for the study and teaching of the Church's Social Doctrine in the formation of Priests |url=https://www.humandevelopment.va/content/dam/sviluppoumano/pubblicazioni-documenti/archivio/dottrina-sociale-della-chiesa/orientamenti/ODSI_ENG.pdf |publisher=Vatican Polyglot Press |location=Rome |date=1988 |page=24}}</ref> In 1961, [[Pope John XXIII]], writing on the topic "Christianity and Social Progress", produced an encyclical entitled ''[[Mater et magistra]]'' (Mother and Teacher), which taught that the "Church is called in truth, justice and love to cooperate in building with all men and women an authentic communion. In this way, economic growth will not be limited to satisfying men's needs, but it will also promote their dignity".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_xxiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_j-xxiii_enc_15051961_mater_en.html|title=John XXIII – Mater et Magistra |publisher=Vatican.va | page=161|year=1961|access-date=17 October 2012}}</ref> Then in 1967, [[Pope Paul VI]] published ''[[Populorum Progressio]]''(Progressive Development). In it the Pope underscored the importance of justice, peace, and development by declaring that "development is the new name of peace". Addressing development workers, he said, "genuine progress does not consist in wealth sought for personal comfort or for its own sake; rather it consists in an economic order designed for the welfare of the human person, where the daily bread that each man receives reflects the glow of brotherly love and the helping hand of God".<ref>{{cite web|author=Paul VI |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_26031967_populorum_en.html |title=Populorum Progressio |publisher=Vatican.va |page=86 |date=1967 |access-date=17 October 2012}}</ref> The importance of engagement for social transformation and development is also asserted in the [[Catechism]] of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html |title=Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern Word – ''Gaudium et spes'' |publisher=Vatican.va |page=66 |access-date=17 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017073250/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html |archive-date=17 October 2012 }}</ref>

=== Bretton Woods ===

The Bretton Woods school of development communication paralleled the economic strategies outlined in the [[Marshall Plan]], the [[Bretton Woods system]] and of the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] in 1944.<ref name="ManyozoAJC" /><ref name="ManyozoMazi">{{cite web|url=http://comminit.com/early-child/content/cfsc-pioneer-honouring-nora-quebral|title=CFSC Pioneer: Honouring Nora Quebral |last=Manyozo |first=Linje|year=2005 }}</ref>
The little-used name served to differentiate the original paradigm from other schools that evolved later.{{sfn|Manyozo|2005}} Leading theorists included Daniel Lerner, Wilbur Schramm and Everett Rogers. Due to his pioneering influence, Rogers was referred to as "one of the founding fathers of development communication."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adhikarya |first1=R. |title=A Personal Tribute to Everett Rogers |journal=Media Asia |date=20 May 2016 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=123–126 |doi=10.1080/01296612.2004.11726745|s2cid=171284150 }}</ref>

This approach to development communication was criticized by Latin American researchers such as [[Luis Ramiro Beltan]] and Alfonso Gumucio Dagron, because it emphasized problems in the developing nation rather than its unequal relation with developed countries. They claimed that it proposed [[industrial capitalism]] as a universal solution and that many projects failed to address obstacles such as lack of access to land, agricultural credits, and fair market prices.{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}}

Failed projects in the 1960s led to revisions.{{clarify|date=September 2013}} Manyozo found that the school had been the most dynamic in testing and adopting new approaches and methodologies.<ref name="ManyozoAJC" />

Institutions associated with the Bretton Woods school of development communication include:
[[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO)
[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO)
[[Rockefeller Foundation]]
[[Department for International Development]], United Kingdom
[[Ford Foundation]]

=== Latin America ===

The Latin American school of development communication predates the Bretton Woods school, emerging in the 1940s with the efforts of Colombia's [[Radio Sutatenza]] and Bolivia's [[Radios Mineras]]. They pioneered participatory and educational approaches to empowering the marginalised. In effect, they served as the earliest models for [[participatory broadcasting]] efforts around the world.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

In the 1960s [[Paolo Freire]]'s theories of [[critical pedagogy]] and Miguel Sabido's enter-educate method became important elements of the Latin American development communication school.<ref>Arvind Singhal, Everett M. Rogers (1999).{{google books|id=FWNPUpuLav4C|pg=49}}, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. {{ISBN|0-8058-3350-1}}.</ref><ref>Arvind Singhal, Michael J. Cody, Everett M. Rogers, Miguel Sabido (2004).{{google books|id=FWNPUpuLav4C|pg=49}} Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. {{ISBN|0-8058-4552-6}}</ref>

Other influential theorists include Juan Diaz Bordenave, Luis Ramiro Beltran, and [[Alfonso Gumucio Dagron]] (Manyozo 2006, Manyozo, 2005).<ref name="ManyozoAJC" />{{sfn|Manyozo|2005}}

In the 1990s, technological advances facilitated social change and development: new media outlets emerged, cable TV reached more regions, and the growth of local communication firms paralleled the growth of major media corporations.<ref>{{cite web|last=Peirano|first=Luis|title=CFSC Analysis and Opinion: Developing a Unique Proposal for Communication for Development in Latin America|url=http://www.comminit.com/sbcs2016/content/cfsc-analysis-and-opinion-developing-unique-proposal-communication-development-latin-ame|work=MAZI Articles|publisher=Communication for Social Change Consortium, Inc.|access-date=22 September 2011}}</ref>

=== India ===

Organized development communication in India began with rural radio broadcasts in the 1940s. Broadcasts adopted indigenous languages to reach larger audiences.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

Organized efforts in India started with community development projects in the 1950s. The government, guided by socialist ideals and politicians, started many development programs. Field publicity was employed for person-to-person communication. The radio played an important role in reaching the masses because literacy was low. Educational institutions – especially agricultural universities, through their extension networks – and international organizations under the [[United Nations]] umbrella experimented with development communication.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

[[Non-governmental organizations]] (NGOs) relied on close inter-personal relations among communicators.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

Communication from the government was more generic and unidirectional. So-called Public Information Campaigns were government-sponsored public fairs in remote areas that presented entertainment along with information on social and developmental schemes. Villagers engaged in competitions to attract attendees. Public and private organizations sponsored stalls in the main exhibition area. Development agencies and service/goods providers also attended. Some state governments employed this model.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

Community radio was used in rural India. NGOs and educational institutions created local stations to broadcast information, advisories and messages on development. Local participation was encouraged. Community radio provided a platform for villagers to publicize local issues, offering the potential to elicit action from local officials.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

The widespread adoption of mobile telephony in India created new channels for reaching the masses.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Great Indian Phone Book| last=Doron |first=Assa |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2 April 2013 }}</ref>

=== Africa ===

The African school of development communication sprang from the continent's post-colonial and communist movements in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Anglophone Africa employed radio and theatre for community education, adult literacy, health and agricultural education (Kamlongera, 1983, Mlama, 1971).<ref name="ManyozoAJC" />{{sfn|Manyozo|2005}}

In 1994, the [[FAO]] project "Communication for Development in Southern Africa" was a pioneer in supporting and enhancing development projects and programs through the use of participatory communication. The FAO project, placed under SADC, developed an innovative methodology known as Participatory Rural Communication Appraisal (PRCA), which combined participatory tools and techniques with a strong communication focus needed to enhance projects results and sustainability. FAO and SADC published a handbook on PRCA that was used in projects around the world.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

The radio maintained a strong presence in research and practice into the 21st century. Radio was especially important in rural areas, as the work of the non-governmental organization [[Farm Radio International]] and its members across sub-Saharan Africa demonstrated. Knowledge exchange between development partners such as agricultural scientists and farmers were mediated through rural radio (Hambly Odame, 2003).

=== Philippines ===

Systematic study and practice began at the [[University of the Philippines Los Baños]] in the 1970s, through the establishment of the Department of Development Communication in the [[University of the Philippines College of Agriculture|College of Agriculture]],<ref name="Quebral, N.C. 1975">{{cite journal | last1 = Quebral | first1 = N.C. | year = 1975 | title = Development communication: Where does it stand today? | journal = Media Asia | volume = 2 | issue = 4| pages = 197–202 | doi = 10.1080/01296612.1975.11725857 }}</ref> which offered undergraduate and master's degrees.<ref name="{{doi|10.1177/001654928202900101}}">{{Cite journal | last1 = Ogan | first1 = C. L. | doi = 10.1177/001654928202900101 | title = Development Journalism/Communication: The Status of the Concept | journal = International Communication Gazette | volume = 29 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 3–09 | year = 1982 | s2cid = 144497419 }}</ref>

Quebral coined the term "development communication" while at the university's Office of Extension and Publications, now the [[UPLB College of Development Communication|College of Development Communication]] (CDC).<ref name="Quebral, N.C. 1975" /><ref name="{{doi|10.1177/001654928202900101}}" /> According to Felix Librero, the term was first used by Quebral in her 1971 paper, "Development Communication in the Agricultural Context," presented in at a symposium at the University of the Philippines Los Baños. In her paper, Quebral argued that development communication had become a science, requiring the tasks associated with communicating development-oriented issues be based on scientific inquiry. At the time the field was limited to agricultural and rural development.<ref>{{cite web |last=Librero |first=F. |date=December 2008 |title=Development communication Los Baños style: A story behind the history. ''Development communication: Looking back, moving forward.'' Symposium |location=Meeting of the UP Alliance of Development Communication Students, UPLB College of Development Communication, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines |url=http://www.upou.edu.ph/papers/flibrero_2009/DevcomLB_history.pdf |page=8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130022559/http://upou.edu.ph/papers/flibrero_2009/DevcomLB_history.pdf |archive-date=30 November 2010 }}</ref>

At the time the term 'development support communication' was used in [[UNDP]] programmes under Erskine Childers, with coauthor and wife, Malicca Vajrathron.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} This area of research focused on the functions of communication in promoting UN agricultural and development programmes. Development communication at Los Baños became an academic field rather than a techniques program.{{sfn|Librero|2008|pp=8–9}} Quebral cited Seers's definition of development in arguing for the term, as opposed to Childer's 'development support communication', which was used in public and in the scientific literature for the first time. Librero recounted that colleagues in agricultural communications in Los Baños agreed with Quebral, but colleagues from the field of mass communication in the [[University of the Philippines Diliman]], and from countries in North America, did not initially agree, although they ultimately relented.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

In 1993, in the Institute of Development Communication's faculty papers series, Alexander Flor proposed expanding the definition of development communication to include the perspective of [[cybernetics]] and [[general systems theory]]:

<blockquote>''If information counters [[entropy]] and societal breakdown is a type of entropy, then there must be a specific type of information that counters societal entropy. The exchange of such information – be it at the individual, group, or societal level – is called development communication.''<ref name="upstream">{{citation |first=Alexander |last=Flor |title=Upstream and Downstream Interventions in Environmental Communication |publisher=Institute of Development Communication |year=1993 }}</ref></blockquote>

=== Participatory development communication ===
The evolution of the [[participatory development communication]] school involved collaboration between [[First World]] and [[Third World]] development communication organizations. It focused on community involvement in development efforts and was influenced by [[Paulo Freire|Freirean]] critical pedagogy and the Los Baños school (Besette, 2004).<ref name="ManyozoAJC" />{{sfn|Manyozo|2005}}

=== World Bank ===

The [[World Bank]] actively promotes this field through its Development Communication division and published the ''Development Communication Sourcebook'' in 2008, a resource addressing the history, concepts and practical applications of this discipline.<ref name="siteresources.worldbank.org">Mefalopulos, Paulo. Development Communication Sourcebook: Broadening the Boundaries of Communication. World Bank. Retrieved from: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDEVCOMMENG/Resources/DevelopmentCommSourcebook.pdf</ref>

'''Development Communication or Communication for Development'''

World Bank tends to espouse and promote the title "Development Communication" while UNICEF uses "Communication for Development". The difference seems to be a matter of semantics and not ideology since the end goals of these global organizations are almost identical to each other.

UNICEF explains: {{blockquote|Communication for Development (C4D) goes beyond providing information. It involves understanding people, their beliefs and values, the social and cultural norms that shape their lives. It includes engaging communities and listening to adults and children as they identify problems, propose solutions and act upon them. Communication for development is seen as a two-way process for sharing ideas and knowledge using a range of communication tools and approaches that empower individuals and communities to take actions to improve their lives.<ref>UNICEF http://www.unicef.org/cbsc/</ref>}}

World Bank defines Development Communication "as an interdisciplinary field, is based on empirical research that helps to build consensus while it facilitates the sharing of knowledge to achieve a positive change in the development initiative. It is not only about effective dissemination of information but also about using empirical research and two-way communications among stakeholders". (Development Communication division, the World Bank).<ref name="siteresources.worldbank.org" />