Editing Devil (section)

== History ==
=== Pre-Historic period to Archaic period ===
Most early belief-systems had no unifying concept of evil. In the oldest available records, [[Natural evil|evil is part of nature]]. In [[Mesopotamia]], evil is sometimes said to derive from [[primordial chaos]], but there are no inherently evil demons or devils. Various spirits and deities could do both good and evil depending on whim.<ref>Maul, S., Jansen-Winkeln, K., Niehr, H., Macuch, M., & Johnston, S. I. (2006). Demons. In Brill's New Pauly Online. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e309270</ref> The oldest known Egyptian beliefs had no evil deities: the gods being morally ambivalent and required to submit to the divine order of the cosmos, evil being an action violating said harmony.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 76</ref> In [[Hinduism|old Hindu beliefs]], deities, reflecting the supreme reality, are both benevolent and fierce.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 56</ref> Even in the [[Old Testament]], the evil, and hence devilish characteristics, are an expression of Yahweh's wrath.<ref>Bonnetain, Yvonne S (2015). Loki: Beweger der Geschichten [Loki: Movers of the stories] (in German). Roter Drache. ISBN 978-3-939459-68-2. OCLC 935942344. p. 267</ref>Among ancient Middle Eastern beliefs, [[Zorastrianism]] was the first institutionized belief-system which developed a clear demonology headed by a [[Angra Mainyu|supreme spirit of Evil]] (Angra Mainyu), i.e. Devil.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 104</ref><ref>Maul, S., Jansen-Winkeln, K., Niehr, H., Macuch, M., & Johnston, S. I. (2006). Demons. In Brill's New Pauly Online. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e309270</ref>

Around 600 BC, [[Zarathustra]] urged his followers to turn away from the devas, in favor of dedicating worship to [[Ahura Mazda]] alone.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 98</ref> Unique to Zarathustra's revelation was that he claimed that evil is not part of the Godhead (or ultimate reality), but a separate principle independent from God.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 98</ref> For the formulation of [[Good and Evil]] as entirely separate principles, Zarathustra argued that God (Ahura Mazda) freely choose goodness, while Angra Mainyu freely choose evil.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 106</ref><ref>Bonnetain, Yvonne S (2015). Loki: Beweger der Geschichten [Loki: Movers of the stories] (in German). Roter Drache. ISBN 978-3-939459-68-2. OCLC 935942344. p. 267</ref> By doing so, he established the first known dualistic cosmologoical system, which would later influence other religions, including [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Manichaeism]], and [[Islam]].<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, pp. 98-99</ref> Alienated from the new sole deity, spirits of previous belief-systems thus became [[demonization|associated with the forces of evil]] and hence [[demon]]s.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 105</ref> As servants of the destructive spirit, the demons were believed to follow only evil; inflicting pain and causing destruction. Unfortunate souls, who find themselves in the domain of the evil spirits after death (i.e. in hell), are also tortured by the demons.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 117</ref> Spirits found to align with the new sole deity then became the [[Angel|Godhead's servants]] (i.e. angels).<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 105</ref><ref>Barr, James. "The question of religious influence: The case of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity." Journal of the American Academy of Religion 53.2 (1985): 201-235</ref>

Thus, the [[Canaanite religion|originally monistic Canaanite form]] of Judaism absorbs parts of Persian dualistic tendencies during the [[Post-exilic|Post-exilic period]].<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 99</ref><ref>Van der Toorn, Karel, Bob Becking, and Pieter Willem van der Horst, eds. Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999. p. 236</ref> However, Second-Temple Judaism, and later Christianity, differ from Persian dualism in some regards: the proposed omnipotence of God of the former does not allow for a radical dualism as proposed by Zorastrianism and later Manichaeism. However, Judeo-Christian tradition still differs from earlier monistic beliefs by limiting the power of their Godhead through an evil principle or force, introduced by Zorastrianism.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 99</ref> Christianity in particular, struggled with reconsiling God's omnipresence with God's benevolence.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 101</ref> While Zorastrianism sacrificed God's omnipotence for God's benevolence, thus giving raise to a principle Devil as independent from God, Christianity mostly insisted on the Devil being created and mildly dependent on God.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 101</ref>

=== Platonism and early Christianity in Antiquity ===
[[File:BlueAngel.png|thumb|120px|Excerpt of a Byzantine-Mosaic-Image. A blue angel, probably representing the Devil, standing before goats. Early 6th century.]]
One way Christianity addressed the [[Theodicy|problem of evil]] was by distinguishing between mind and body, an idea inherited from [[Ancient Greek Philosophy|Greek]] [[Platonism]]. Similar to Zorastrianism, Platonism was dualistic. However, Platonism and Christianity differ from Persian dualism in sofar as that they associated goodness with only with spirit and evil with matter, proposing a form of [[mind–body dualism]].<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, pp. 99; 160</ref> According to [[Plato]], God is like a [[Demiurge|craftsman]] (Demiurge) who [[Best of all possible worlds|builds the best possible world]]. However, God has to abide by the [[Scientific law|laws of nature]] and can only work with the material presented. Matter, thus, becomes to be the refractionary element in Plato's and later [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] models of the cosmos; resisting the perfection God originally intended.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 160</ref><ref>Calder, Todd, "The Concept of Evil", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2022/entries/concept-evil/> Chapter: 2</ref> In religious beliefs, applying such theories of evil, matter (Greek: {{Lang|grc-latn|hyle}} {{Lang|grc|Ὕλη}}) becomes a sphere of lack of goodness and transforms matter into the devilish principle par excellence.<ref>Jeffrey Burton Russell, The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, Cornell University Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-801-49409-3, p. 160</ref><ref>Horst, P. W. v. d. (2018). Hyle Ὕλη. In Various Authors & Editors (ed.), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible Online. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/2589-7802_DDDO_DDDO_Hyle</ref> 

According to Neoplatonic cosmology, evil (or matter) results from a lack of goodness. The good spirit at the centre, gives rise to several emanations, each decreasing in goodness and increasing in deficiency. Thus, in Christianity, following the [[Absence of good|privation theory]] of the  Neo-Platonists, the Devil became the principle for the thing most remote from God.<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Lucifer: the Devil in the middle ages. Cornell University Press, 1986. p. 36</ref> Details were worked out by Christian scholars, such as [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]]<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Lucifer: the Devil in the middle ages. Cornell University Press, 1986. p. 36</ref> and [[John of Damascus]]<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986). Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9429-1. pp. 37-38</ref> who argued that evil is merely a lack (or removal) of goodness. As such, the Devil was conceptualized as a [[fallen angel]]; a being brought forth as good first, but then turned evil by abandonning goodness.<ref>Felber, A., Hutter, M., Achenbach, R., Aune, D. E., Lang, B., Sparn, W., Reeg, G., Dan, J., Radtke, B., & Apostolos-Cappadona, D. (2011). Devil. In Religion Past and Present Online. Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1877-5888_rpp_COM_025084</ref> John of Damascus used the privation theory to combat dualistic approaches to evil.<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986). Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9429-1. p. 38</ref> Similar rebuttals were written by [[Augustine of Hippo]].<ref>Babcock, William S. (1988). "Augustine on Sin and Moral Agency". The Journal of Religious Ethics. 16 (1): 28–55</ref>

The possibly strongest form of body-mind dualism, and a radical step back towards absolute dualism, as conceptualized earlier in Zorastrianism, was reestablished again by [[Manichaeism]]. Manichaeism was a major religion<ref>R. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''SUNY Press, 1998 {{ISBN|978-0-7914-3611-0}} p. 37</ref> founded in the third century AD by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]]<ref>Yarshater, Ehsan ''The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (2), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983.</ref> prophet [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] ({{circa|216–274 AD}}), in the [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09591a.htm |title=Manichaeism |publisher=New Advent Encyclopedia |access-date=4 October 2013 |archive-date=12 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312005021/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09591a.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> One of its key concepts is the doctrine of ''[[Two Principles and Three Moments]]''. Accordingly, the world could be described as resulting from a past moment, in which two principles (good and evil) were separate, a contemporary moment in which both principles are mixed due to an assault of the [[Prince of Darkness (Manichaeism)|world of darkness]] on the realm of light, and a future moment when both principles are distinct forever.<ref>Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer ''The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications'' 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-834-82414-0}} page 575-577</ref>

=== Spread through Europe in late Antiquity and early Medieval Age ===
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles - Devil and Woman on Horseback (CLXXXIXv).jpg|thumb|right|The Devil on horseback. ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' (1493).]]
Due to Christian dualistic monotheism, non-Christian deities became associated with demons. [[Ephesians]] 6:12, stating " our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms." inspired early Christians to think of themselves on a mission to "drive out demons".<ref>Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 31</ref> By the fourth century, most Christians took it for granted that the Greek pagans worshipped demons and thus belong to the realm of the spiritually impure.<ref>Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 24</ref> In the 2nd century, [[Justin Martyr]] already conceptualized the pagan deities as demons, responsible for persecution of Christians.<ref>Annette Yoshiko Reed Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity: The Reception of Enochic Literature Cambridge University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-521-85378-1 p. 162</ref>
By the end of the sixth century, the Mediterranean society widely identified themselves as unequivocally Christian, with an exception to Jews.<ref>Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 35</ref> The last recorded worship of another non-Christian deity is dated to the 570s.<ref>Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 35</ref> [[Tatian]] considered the pagan gods to be under the power of fate.<ref>Quinn, Dennis P. "Early Christianity and Ancient Astrology–By Tim Hegedus." (2009): 125.</ref> The daimons (spirits) of the Greeks thus became the demons of the Christian's belief-system under the leadership of Zeus, whom they equated witht he Devil i.e. the leader of the foreign spirits.<ref>Quinn, Dennis P. "Early Christianity and Ancient Astrology–By Tim Hegedus." (2009): 125.</ref> The Christians, however, would have broken free from the influence of the gods of the Greek pantheon and thus also free from the fetters of fate and the law.<ref>Quinn, Dennis P. "Early Christianity and Ancient Astrology–By Tim Hegedus." (2009): 126.</ref>

Abstract notions of the Devil, such as regarding evil as the mere absence of good, were far too subtle to be embraced by most theologians during the Early Middle Ages. Instead, they sought a more concrete image of the Devil to represent spiritual struggle and pain. Thus, the Devil became more of a concrete entity. From the 4th through the 12th centuries, Christian ideas combined with European pagan beliefs, created a vivid folklore about the Devil. In many German folktales, the deceived giants of pagan tales, are substituted by a devil.<ref>Röhrich, Lutz (1970). "German Devil Tales and Devil Legends". Journal of the Folklore Institute. 7 (1): 21–35</ref> For example, the devil builds a bridge in exchange for the first passing being's soul, then people let a dog pass the bridge first and the devil is cheated.<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986). Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9429-1 p. 74</ref> At the same time, magical rites calling upon pagan deities were replaced by references to Jesus Christ.<ref>Scribner, Robert W. "The Reformation, popular magic, and the" Disenchantment of the World"." The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 23.3 (1993): 481</ref><ref>Cameron, Malcolm L. "Anglo-Saxon medicine and magic." Anglo-Saxon England 17 (1988): 214</ref>

=== Revival of Dualism in the Medieval Age ===
[[File:God and Lucifer - The Queen Mary Psalter (1310-1320), f.1v - BL Royal MS 2 B VII.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|God and Lucifer – The Queen Mary Psalter (1310–1320), f.1v – BL Royal MS 2 B VII]]
Cosmological dualism underwent a revival in the 12th century by through [[Catharism]], probably influenced by [[Bogomilism]] in the 10th century.{{sfn|Russell|1986|p=185}} What is known of the Cathars largely comes in what is preserved by the critics in the Catholic Church which later destroyed them in the [[Albigensian Crusade]]. [[Alain de Lille]], {{c.|1195}}, accused the Cathars of believing in two gods, one of light and one of darkness.{{sfn|Costen|1997|p=61}} Durand de Huesca, responding to a Cathar tract {{c.|1220}} indicates that they regarded the physical world as the creation of Satan.{{sfn|Lambert|1998|p=162}} In the ''[[Gospel of the Secret Supper]]'', Lucifer, just as in prior Gnostic systems, appears as an evil  demiurge, who created the material world and traps souls inside.<ref>Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer ''The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition'' Shambhala Publications 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-834-82414-0}} p. 764</ref> Bogomilism owed many ideas to the earlier [[Paulicians]] in [[Armenia]] and the Near East and had strong impact on the history of the [[Balkans]]. Their true origin probably lies within earlier sects such as [[Nestorianism]], [[Marcionism]] and [[Borborites|Borboritism]], who all share the notion of a [[Docetism|docetic Jesus]]. Like these earlier movements, Bogomilites agree upon a dualism between body and soul, matter and spirit, and a struggle between good and evil.{{sfn|Barnstone|Meyer|2009|pp=752}} The Catholic church sanctioned dualistic teachings in the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]] (1215), by affirming that God created everything from nothing; that the devil and his demons were created good, but turned evil by their own will; that humans yielded to the devil's temptations, thus falling into sin; and that, after [[Resurrection]], the damned will suffer along with the devil, while the saved enjoy eternity with Christ.{{sfn|Russell|1986|p=189}} Only a few theologians from the [[University of Paris]], in 1241, proposed the contrary assertion, that God created the devil evil and without his own decision.{{sfn|Boureau|2006|p=97}}

After the collapse of the [[Ottoman Empire]], parts of Bogomil Dualism remained in [[Balkan]] [[folklore]] concerning creation: according to a story, dated back to the eleventh to thirteenth century, before God created the world, he meets a goose on the eternal ocean. The name of the Goose is reportedly ''Satanael'' and it claims to be a god. When God asks Satanael who he is, the devil answers "the god of gods". God requests that the devil then dive to the bottom of the sea to carry some mud, and from this mud, they fashioned the world. God created his fiery angels from the right part of a flint rock, and the Devil created his demons from the left part of the flint. Later, the devil tries to assault God but is thrown into the abyss. He remains lurking on the creation of God and planning another attack on heaven.{{sfn|Orlov|2011|pp=98–99}} This myth shares some resemblance with [[Turkic mythology|Pre-Islamic Turkic creation myths]] as well as Bogomilite thoughts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stoyanov |first1=Yuri |title=Islamic and Christian Heterodox Water Cosmogonies from the Ottoman Period: Parallels and Contrasts |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |date=2001 |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=19–33 |id={{INIST|1157309}} {{ProQuest|214039469}} |doi=10.1017/S0041977X01000027 |jstor=3657539 |s2cid=162583636 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/39765/1/Islamic%20%26%20Christian%20Heterodox%20Cosmogonies_Ottoman%20Period_YuriStoyanov.pdf }}</ref>

The story bears resemblance to other Turko-Mongolian cosmogonies. According to one myth found among the [[Tatars|Siberian Tatars]], God and his first creation are envisaged in the form of ducks. God asks his creature and companion to dive into the ocean to retrieve some earth. However, the second duck,  identified with [[Erlik|Erlik Khan]], turns against God and becomes his rival.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stoyanov |first1=Yuri |title=Islamic and Christian Heterodox Water Cosmogonies from the Ottoman Period: Parallels and Contrasts |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |date=2001 |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=19–33 |id={{INIST|1157309}} {{ProQuest|214039469}} |doi=10.1017/S0041977X01000027 |jstor=3657539 |s2cid=162583636 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/39765/1/Islamic%20%26%20Christian%20Heterodox%20Cosmogonies_Ottoman%20Period_YuriStoyanov.pdf }}</ref> A similar legend is recorded among the [[Altai people|Altai Turks]]. Erlik and God swam together over the primordial waters. When God was about to create the Earth, he sent Erlik to dive into the waters and collect some mud. Erlik hid some inside his mouth to later create his own world. But when God commanded the Earth to expand, Erlik got troubled by the mud in his mouth. God aided Erlik to spit it out. The mud carried by Erlik gave place to the unpleasant areas of the world. Because of his sin, he was assigned to evil. Since he claimed equality with God by creating his own world, God punishes Erlik Khan, by granting him his own kingdom in the Underworld.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stoyanov |first1=Yuri |title=Islamic and Christian Heterodox Water Cosmogonies from the Ottoman Period: Parallels and Contrasts |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |date=2001 |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=19–33 |id={{INIST|1157309}} {{ProQuest|214039469}} |doi=10.1017/S0041977X01000027 |jstor=3657539 |s2cid=162583636 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/39765/1/Islamic%20%26%20Christian%20Heterodox%20Cosmogonies_Ottoman%20Period_YuriStoyanov.pdf }}</ref><ref>Mircea Eliade History of Religious Ideas, Volume 3: From Muhammad to the Age of Reforms University of Chicago Press, 31 December 2013 ISBN 978-0-226-14772-7 p. 9</ref><ref>David Adams Leeming A Dictionary of Creation Myths Oxford University Press 2014 ISBN 978-0-19-510275-8 p. 7</ref> In one variant, recorded by [[Verbitsky Vasily]], not only Erlik Khan, but also the spirits he created, were banished form the heavens and cast down to the lower realms.<ref>Fuzuli Bayat Türk Mitolojik Sistemi 2: Kutsal Dişi – Mitolojik Ana, Umay Paradigmasında İlkel Mitolojik Kategoriler – İyeler ve Demonoloji Ötüken Neşriyat A.Ş 2016 ISBN 9786051554075 (Turkish)
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