Editing Discrimination (section)

==Types==

===Age===

{{Main|Ageism|Adultism}}
[[Ageism]] or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someone's age.<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Ageism|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ageism?q=ageism|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514145002/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ageism?q=ageism|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 14, 2013|work=Oxford Dictionaries|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=December 4, 2012}}</ref> It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values which used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a person's age.<ref name="KirkpatrickKatsiaficas1987">{{cite book|last1=Kirkpatrick|first1=George R.|last2=Katsiaficas|first2=George N.|last3=Kirkpatrick|first3=Robert George|author4=Mary Lou Emery|title=Introduction to critical sociology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdf2QupEaHgC&pg=PA261|access-date=January 28, 2011|year=1987|publisher=Ardent Media|isbn=978-0-8290-1595-9|page=261}}</ref> Ageism is most often directed toward elderly people, or adolescents and children.<ref>Wilkinson J and Ferraro K, "Thirty Years of Ageism Research". In Nelson T (ed). ''Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice Against Older Persons''. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2002</ref><ref>[http://www.youthrights.org/oppressed.php "Young and Oppressed"]. youthrights.org. Retrieved April 11, 2012. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728105250/http://www.youthrights.org/oppressed.php |date=July 28, 2011}}</ref>

Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. Joanna Lahey, professor at The [[Bush School of Government and Public Service]] at [[Texas A&M]], found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview a young adult job applicant than an older job applicant.<ref>Lahey, J. (2005) [https://ideas.repec.org/p/crr/issbrf/ib33.html Do Older Workers Face Discrimination?] Boston College. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414230847/https://ideas.repec.org/p/crr/issbrf/ib33.html |date=April 14, 2012}}</ref> In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at [[Ghent University]], measured comparable ratios in Belgium. They found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years. In Belgium, they are only discriminated if they have more years of inactivity or irrelevant employment.<ref>Baert, S., Norga, J., Thuy, Y., Van Hecke, M. (In press) [http://users.ugent.be/~sbaert/BaertNorgaThuyVanHecke_GettingGreyHairs_JEP.pdf Getting Grey Hairs in the Labour Market: An Alternative Experiment on Age Discrimination] Journal of Economic Psychology.</ref>

In a survey for the [[University of Kent]], England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination. This is a higher proportion than for [[Sexism|gender]] or [[Racism|racial]] discrimination. [[Dominic Abrams]], social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form of [[prejudice]] experienced in the UK population.<ref>(2006) [http://www.ageconcern.org.uk/AgeConcern/media/how_ageist_is_britain.pdf How Ageist is Britain?] London: Age Concern. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051027165812/http://www.ageconcern.org.uk/AgeConcern/media/how_ageist_is_britain.pdf |date=October 27, 2005}}</ref>

===Caste===
{{See also|Caste}}

According to [[UNICEF]] and [[Human Rights Watch]], [[caste]] discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide and is mainly prevalent in parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/protection/index_discrimination.html|title=Discrimination|work=[[UNICEF]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608013440/http://www.unicef.org/protection/index_discrimination.html|archive-date=2011-06-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2001/08/29/global1815.htm|title=Global Caste Discrimination|work=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=April 26, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081115074446/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2001/08/29/global1815.htm|archive-date=November 15, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{As of|2011}}, there were 200 million [[Dalit]]s or [[Scheduled Castes]] (formerly known as "untouchables") in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://idsn.org/india-official-dalit-population-exceeds-200-million/|title=India: Official Dalit population exceeds 200 million|date=May 29, 2013|publisher=International Dalit Solidarity Network|access-date=July 30, 2014}}</ref>

===Class===
{{Excerpt|Class discrimination|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs}}

===Disability===
{{Main|Disability discrimination}}

Discrimination against people with [[Disability|disabilities]] in favor of people who are not is called [[ableism]] or [[disablism]]. Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as the standard of 'normal living', results in public and private places and services, educational settings, and social services that are built to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various disabilities. Studies have shown that disabled people not only need employment in order to be provided with the opportunity to earn a living but they also need employment in order to sustain their mental health and well-being. Work fulfils a number of basic needs for an individual such as collective purpose, social contact, status, and activity.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vornholt|first=Katharina|author2=Sjir Uitdewilligen |author3=Frans J.N. Nijhuis |title=Factors Affecting the Acceptance of People with Disabilities at Work: A Literature Review|journal=Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation|date=December 2013|volume=23|issue=4|pages=463–75|doi=10.1007/s10926-013-9426-0|pmid=23400588|s2cid=10038886|url=https://cris.maastrichtuniversity.nl/en/publications/309d145f-bd62-4b5b-826b-a08c64b00bb0}}</ref> A person with a disability is often found to be socially isolated and work is one way to reduce his or her isolation. In the United States, the [[Americans with Disabilities Act]] mandates the provision of equality of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such as the [[Equality Act 2010]] in the UK.

===Excellence===
{{Excerpt|Discrimination of excellence|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs}}

===Language===
[[File:Corsican nationalism.jpg|thumb|Nationalists in [[Corsica]] sometimes spray-paint or shoot traffic signs in [[French language|French]].]]
{{Excerpt|Linguistic discrimination}}

===Name===
Discrimination based on a person's name may also occur, with researchers suggesting that this form of discrimination is present based on a name's meaning, its pronunciation, its uniqueness, its gender affiliation, and its racial affiliation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 =Silberzhan | first1 =Raphael | title =It Pays to be Herr Kaiser | journal =Psychological Science | volume =24 | issue =12 | pages =2437–2444 | date =May 19, 2013 | doi =10.1177/0956797613494851 | pmid =24113624 | s2cid =30086487 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last =Laham | first =Simon | title =The name-pronunciation effect: Why people like Mr. Smith more than Mr. Colquhoun | journal =Journal of Experimental Social Psychology | volume=48 | issue =2012 | pages =752–756 | date =December 9, 2011 | doi =10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.002 | s2cid =6757690 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last =Cotton | first =John | title =The "name game": affective and hiring reactions to first names | journal =Journal of Managerial Psychology | volume =23 | issue =1 | pages =18–39 | date =July 2007 | doi =10.1108/02683940810849648 | s2cid =4484088 | url =https://epublications.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=mgmt_fac | url-access =subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last =Bertrand | first =Marianne | title =Are Emily and Brendan More Employable than Lakisha and Jamaal? | journal =The American Economic Review | volume =94 | issue =4 | pages =991–1013 | date =September 2004 | doi =10.1257/0002828042002561 | url =http://s3.amazonaws.com/fieldexperiments-papers2/papers/00216.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last = Easton | first=Stephen | title=Blind recruiting study suggests positive discrimination common in the APS | newspaper=The Mandarin | date=June 30, 2017 }}</ref> Research has further shown that real world recruiters spend an average of just six seconds reviewing each résumé before making their initial "fit/no fit" screen-out decision and that a person's name is one of the six things they focus on most.<ref>{{cite news | last = Smith | first =Jacquelyn | title =Here's What Recruiters Look At In The 6 Seconds They Spend On Your Résumé | newspaper =Business Insider | date =November 4, 2014 }}</ref> France has made it illegal to view a person's name on a résumé when screening for the initial list of most qualified candidates. Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands have also experimented with name-blind summary processes.<ref>{{cite news | title =No names, no bias | newspaper =The Economist | date =October 29, 2015 }}</ref> Some apparent discrimination may be explained by other factors such as name frequency.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 =Silberzhan | first1=Raphael | last2=Simonsohn | first2=Uri | last3=Uhlmann| first3=Eric| title =Matched-Names Analysis Reveals No Evidence of Name-Meaning Effects: A Collaborative Commentary on Silberzahn and Uhlmann | journal = Psychological Science | volume =25 | issue =7 | pages =1504–1505 | date =February 4, 2014|url=http://www.socialjudgments.com/docs/Silberzahn_Simonsohn_Uhlmann_2014_Collaborative_Commentary_and_Online_Supplement.pdf | doi=10.1177/0956797614533802 | pmid=24866920 | s2cid=26814316 }}</ref> The effects of name discrimination based on a name's fluency is subtle, small and subject to significantly changing norms.<ref>{{cite news | title =The Power of Names | newspaper =The New York Times | date =May 29, 2013 }}</ref>

===Nationality===
{{further|Discrimination based on nationality}}
The Anti-discrimination laws of most countries allow and make exceptions for discrimination based on nationality and immigration status.<ref name="Fennelly">{{Cite journal |last1=Fennelly |first1=David |title=Racial Discrimination and Nationality and Migration Exceptions: Reconciling CERD and the Race Equality Directive |last2=Murphy |first2=Clíodhna |date=2021 |journal=Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights |volume=39 |pages=308–328 |doi=10.1177/09240519211055648 |issue=4|s2cid=243839359 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]] (CERD) does not prohibit discrimination by nationality, citizenship or naturalization but forbids discrimination "against any particular nationality".<ref>[https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-convention-elimination-all-forms-racial International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]</ref>

Discrimination on the basis of [[nationality]] is usually included in [[Employment discrimination|employment laws]]<ref>[http://dwd.wisconsin.gov/er/discrimination_civil_rights/publication_erd_14009_pweb.htm Race, Color, National Origin and Ancestry], State of Wisconsin {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024061935/http://dwd.wisconsin.gov/er/discrimination_civil_rights/publication_erd_14009_pweb.htm |date=October 24, 2012 }}</ref> (see above [[#Employment|section for employment discrimination]] specifically). It is sometimes referred to as bound together with racial discrimination<ref>{{cite web|title=Race and National Origin Discrimination|url=https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/frontpage/faq/race-origin.html|website=Office for Civil Rights|publisher=U.S. Department of Education|access-date=December 16, 2017}}</ref> although it can be separate. It may vary from laws that stop refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality.

Discrimination on the basis of nationality may show as a "level of acceptance" in a sport or work team regarding new team members and employees who differ from the nationality of the majority of team members.<ref>Christiane Schwieren, [http://sgr.sagepub.com/content/39/6/643.abstract Mechanisms Underlying Nationality-Based Discrimination in Teams. A Quasi-Experiment Testing Predictions From Social Psychology and Microeconomics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231234833/http://sgr.sagepub.com/content/39/6/643.abstract |date=2015-12-31 }}, Maastricht University</ref>

In the [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|GCC]] states, in the workplace, preferential treatment is given to full citizens, even though many of them lack experience or motivation to do the job. State benefits are also generally available for citizens only.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/comment/emiratisation-wont-work-if-people-dont-want-to-learn|title=Emiratisation won't work if people don't want to learn|author=Ayesha Almazroui|access-date=April 26, 2016 |archive-date=April 26, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426083228/http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/comment/emiratisation-wont-work-if-people-dont-want-to-learn |url-status=dead |date=March 18, 2013 }}</ref> Westerners might also get paid more than other expatriates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/uae/western-workers-favoured-in-uae-survey-respondents-say-1.21895|title='Western workers favoured in UAE', survey respondents say|website=The National|date=April 18, 2015|language=en|access-date=2019-07-08}}</ref>

===Race or ethnicity===

{{Main|Racism|Racial discrimination|Discrimination based on skin color|Ethnic penalty|Racial segregation}}
[[File:Anti Arab sign in Pattaya Beach Thailand.jpg|thumb|[[Anti-Arabism|Anti-Arab]] sign in [[Pattaya Beach]], [[Thailand]]]]
[[File:No entrance for poles1.jpeg|thumb|German warning in [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|German-occupied Poland]] 1939 – "[[Nur für Deutsche|No entrance for Poles]]!"|left]]
[[File:37431682 eb5832e644.jpg|left|thumb|[[Racial antisemitism|Antisemitic]] graffiti in [[Lithuania]]. The words read ''Juden raus'' (German for ''Jews out'') and ''Hasse'' (presumably a misspelling of ''Hass'', German for ''hate'').]]
[[Image:Segregation 1938b.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An [[African-American]] child at a segregated drinking fountain on a courthouse lawn, [[North Carolina]], US 1938]]

Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on the basis of real and perceived racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of the [[ethnic penalty]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kislev|first=Elyakim|date=2016-09-19|title=Deciphering the 'Ethnic Penalty' of Immigrants in Western Europe: A Cross-Classified Multilevel Analysis|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11205-016-1451-x|journal=Social Indicators Research|volume=134|issue=2|pages=725–745|doi=10.1007/s11205-016-1451-x|s2cid=157454886|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="carmichael & woods, 2000">{{cite journal | title=Ethnic Penalties in Unemployment and Occupational Attainment: Evidence for Britain |author1=Carmichael, F. |author2=Woods, R. | journal=International Review of Applied Economics | year=2000 | volume=14 | issue=1 | pages=71–98 | doi=10.1080/026921700101498|s2cid=154020583 }}</ref> It can also refer to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the [[Supremacism|superiority]] of one [[Race (human categorization)|race]] over another.<ref name="Dennis">{{cite journal|author=Dennis, Rutledge M.|title=Social Darwinism, scientific racism, and the metaphysics of race|journal=Journal of Negro Education|volume=64|issue=3|pages=243–52|year=1995|doi=10.2307/2967206|jstor=2967206}}</ref><ref name="oxforddictionaries.com">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120708012611/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/racism Racism] Oxford Dictionaries</ref><ref name="Ghani">{{cite book |last=Ghani |first=Navid |editor-last=Schaefer |editor-first=Richard T. |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society |date=2008 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4129-2694-2 |pages=1113–1115 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMUola6pDnkC&q=racism |chapter=Racism}}</ref><ref name="newman, D.M.">{{cite book | last = Newman | first = D. M. | title = Sociology : exploring the architecture of everyday life | publisher = SAGE | location = Los Angeles | year = 2012 | edition = 9th | isbn = 978-1-4129-8729-5 | page = 405 | quote = racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior.}}</ref> It may also mean [[prejudice]], discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race or [[ethnicity]].<ref name="oxforddictionaries.com"/><ref name="Ghani"/>

Modern variants of [[racism]] are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of [[social actions]], practices or beliefs, or [[political systems]] in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities.<ref name="oxforddictionaries.com"/><ref name="Ghani"/><ref name="newman">{{cite book | last = Newman | first = D.M. | title = Sociology: exploring the architecture of everyday life | publisher = Sage | location = Los Angeles | year = 2012 | edition = 9th | isbn = 978-1-4129-8729-5 | page = 405 | quote = racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior.}}</ref> It has been official government policy in several countries, such as [[South Africa]] during the [[apartheid]] era. Discriminatory policies towards ethnic minorities include the race-based discrimination against ethnic [[Malaysian Indian|Indians]] and Chinese in Malaysia<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7121534.stm Malaysia's lingering ethnic divide]". March 4, 2008. BBC News.</ref> The concept of multiracism has been used to explain the varieties of race discrimination.<ref>Bonnett, A. 2022, ''Multiracism'', Polity, ISBN 978-1509537327</ref> After the [[Vietnam War]], many [[Vietnamese boat people|Vietnamese refugees]] moved to Australia and the United States, where they faced discrimination.<ref>Levine, Bertram. (2005). "Not All Black and White". J. Cropp (Ed.), ''Resolving Racial Conflict'', 193–218. London: University of Missouri Press.</ref>

===Region===

{{see also|Regional discrimination in China}}
Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region in which a person lives or the region in which a person was born. It differs from national discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries. Examples include discrimination against Chinese people who were born in regions of the countryside that are far away from cities that are located within China, and discrimination against [[Americans]] who are from the [[Southern United States|southern]] or [[Northern United States|northern]] regions of the United States. It is often accompanied by discrimination that is based on accent, dialect, or cultural differences.<ref name="Accent">{{Cite web | url=https://definitions.uslegal.com/a/accent-discrimination/ | title=Accent Discrimination Law and Legal Definition|publisher=USLegal}}</ref>

===Religious beliefs===
{{Main|Religious discrimination|Religious exclusivism}}

{{Status of religious freedom}}
[[File:Lotshampa refugees in Beldangi Camp.jpg|thumb|In the 1990s, Bhutan [[Bhutanese refugees|expelled its Hindu population or forced it to leave the country]] in order to preserve [[Bhutan]]'s Buddhist culture and identity.]]
Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a given [[religion]]. For instance, the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed a large portion of Europe, was subjected to discrimination under [[Adolf Hitler]] and his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945. They were forced to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all because of their Jewish religion. Many laws (most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935) separated those of Jewish faith as supposedly inferior to the Christian population.

Restrictions on the types of occupations that [[Jews|Jewish]] people could hold were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to religious Jews, pushing them into marginal roles that were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and [[moneylending]], occupations that were only tolerated as a "[[necessary evil]]".<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20050721005923/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/07/0718_050718_ashkenazim.html Did Discrimination Enhance Intelligence of Jews?]". National Geographic News. July 18, 2005 </ref> The number of Jews who were permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in [[ghetto]]s and banned from owning land. In Saudi Arabia, non-[[Muslim]]s are not allowed to publicly practice their religions and they cannot enter [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].<ref name="mackeymecca">[[Sandra Mackey]]'s account of her attempt to enter Mecca in {{cite book|title=The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom|last=Mackey|first=Sandra|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=1987|isbn=978-0-393-32417-4|pages=63–64}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, private non-Muslim religious gatherings might be raided by the [[religious police]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108492.htm|title=Saudi Arabia|last=Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information|first=Bureau of Public Affairs|date=2008-09-19|website=2001-2009.state.gov|language=en|access-date=2019-07-24}}</ref> In Maldives, non-Muslims living and visiting the country are prohibited from openly expressing their religious beliefs, holding public congregations to conduct religious activities, or involving Maldivians in such activities. Those expressing religious beliefs other than Islam may face imprisonment of up to five years or house arrest, fines ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 rufiyaa ($320 to $1,300), and deportation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Maldives |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/maldives/ |website=United States Department of State |access-date=30 March 2022}}</ref>

In a 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined religious discrimination in relation to the [[Civil and political rights|civil rights]] which are guaranteed by the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]]. Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential for [[Freedom of Religion]] (in the United States as secured by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]), religious discrimination occurs when someone is denied "equal protection under the law, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom".<ref>U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1979: ''Religious discrimination. A neglected issue. A consultation sponsored by the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Washington. D.C., April 9–10, 1979''</ref>

===Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity ===
{{Main|Sexism}}
{{See also|Homophobia|Misogyny|Misandry|Discrimination against intersex people|Transphobia||Discrimination against non-binary gender persons|Violence against LGBT people}}

[[Sexism]] is a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. It has been linked to [[stereotype]]s and [[gender role]]s,<ref>{{cite book |last=Matsumoto |first=David |title=The Handbook of Culture and Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookculturep00mats |url-access=limited |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-513181-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookculturep00mats/page/n213 197] }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Nakdimen |first=K. A. |title=The Physiognomic Basis of Sexual Stereotyping |journal=[[American Journal of Psychiatry]] |year=1984 |volume=141 |issue=4 |pages=499–503 |doi=10.1176/ajp.141.4.499 |pmid=6703126 }}</ref> and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.<ref name=":0a">{{Cite book|title=SOC 2018|last=Witt|first=Jon|date=2017|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=9781259702723|edition=5th|location=New York|oclc=968304061}}{{page needed|date=May 2018}}</ref> Extreme sexism may foster [[sexual harassment]], [[rape]], and other forms of [[sexual violence]].<ref>Forcible Rape Institutionalized Sexism in the Criminal Justice System| Gerald D. Robin Division of Criminal Justice, University of New Haven</ref> Gender discrimination may encompass sexism and is discrimination toward people based on their [[gender identity]]<ref name="Macklem">{{cite book |last=Macklem |first=Tony |year=2003 |title=Beyond Comparison: Sex and Discrimination |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82682-2 }}</ref> or their gender or sex differences.<ref name="Lenhart">{{cite book|title=Clinical Aspects of Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination: Psychological Consequences and Treatment Interventions|author=Sharyn Ann Lenhart|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2004|isbn=978-1135941314|page=6|access-date=April 20, 2018|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rt2SAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|quote=GENDER OR SEX DISCRIMINATION: This term refers to the types of gender bias that have a negative impact. The term has legal, as well as theoretical and psychological, definitions. Psychological consequences can be more readily inferred from the latter, but both definitions are of significance. Theoretically, gender discrimination has been described as (1) the unequal rewards that men and women receive in the workplace or academic environment because of their gender or sex difference (DiThomaso, 1989); (2) a process occurring in work or educational settings in which an individual is overtly or covertly limited access to an opportunity or a resource because of a sex or is given the opportunity or the resource reluctantly and may face harassment for picking it (Roeske & Pleck, 1983); or (3) both.}}</ref> Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of [[workplace inequality]].<ref name="Lenhart"/> It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/12/football/iran-blue-girl-sahar-khodayari-spt-intl/index.html|title=FIFA must act after death of Iran's 'Blue Girl,' says activist|author=Christina Macfarlane, Sean Coppack and James Masters|website=CNN|date=September 12, 2019 }}</ref>

[[Intersex]] persons experience [[Discrimination against intersex people|discrimination]] due to innate, atypical [[sex characteristics]]. Multiple jurisdictions now protect individuals on grounds of ''intersex status'' or ''[[sex characteristics]]''. South Africa was the first country to explicitly add intersex to legislation, as part of the attribute of 'sex'.<ref>[http://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/acts/2005-022.pdf Judicial Matters Amendment Act, No. 22 of 2005], Republic of South Africa, Vol. 487, Cape Town, January 11, 2006.</ref> Australia was the first country to add an independent attribute, of 'intersex status'.<ref name="expmem">{{cite web|url=http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22legislation%2Fems%2Fr5026_ems_1fcd9245-33ff-4b3a-81b9-7fdc7eb91b9b%22 |title=Australian Parliament, Explanatory Memorandum to the Sex Discrimination Amendment (Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Intersex Status) Bill 2013 |access-date=October 6, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219231017/http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p%3Bquery%3DId%3A%22legislation/ems/r5026_ems_1fcd9245-33ff-4b3a-81b9-7fdc7eb91b9b%22 |archive-date=December 19, 2014}}</ref><ref>[http://oii.org.au/21774/welcome-senate-inquiry-anti-discrimination/ We welcome the Senate Inquiry report on the Exposure Draft of the Human Rights and Anti-Discrimination Bill 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101205811/http://oii.org.au/21774/welcome-senate-inquiry-anti-discrimination/ |date=2014-01-01}}, [[Organisation Intersex International Australia]], February 21, 2013.</ref> Malta was the first to adopt a broader framework of 'sex characteristics', through legislation that also ended modifications to the sex characteristics of minors undertaken for social and cultural reasons.<ref name="gate-malta">{{cite web |url=http://transactivists.org/2015/04/08/making-depathologization-a-matter-of-law-a-comment-from-gate-on-the-maltese-act-on-gender-identity-gender-expression-and-sex-characteristics/ |title=Making depathologization a matter of law. A comment from GATE on the Maltese Act on Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics |last1=Cabral |first1=Mauro |author-link=Mauro Cabral |date=April 8, 2015 |publisher=[[Global Action for Trans Equality]] |access-date=2015-07-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704213308/http://transactivists.org/2015/04/08/making-depathologization-a-matter-of-law-a-comment-from-gate-on-the-maltese-act-on-gender-identity-gender-expression-and-sex-characteristics/ |archive-date=July 4, 2015}}</ref><ref name="oiieu-malta">{{Cite web |last= |date=April 1, 2015 |title=OII-Europe applauds Malta's Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sex Characteristics Act. This is a landmark case for intersex rights within European law reform |url=http://oiieurope.org/press-release-oii-europe-applauds-maltas-gender-identity-gender-expression-and-sex-characteristics-act/ |access-date=2023-01-17 |website=Oii Europe}}</ref> Global efforts such as the United Nations [[Sustainable Development Goal 5]] is also aimed at ending all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender and sex.<ref>{{Cite web|last=sdgcounting|date=2017-06-06|title=SDG 5 Indicators|url=https://medium.com/sdgs-resources/sdg-5-indicators-5fe7d2b13b58|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref>

===Sexual orientation===

[[File:Cologne Germany Cologne-Gay-Pride-2015 Parade-17b.jpg|thumb|LGBT activists at [[Cologne Pride]] carrying a banner with the flags of over 70 countries where [[LGBT rights by country or territory|homosexuality is illegal]]]]
[[File:Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill protest.jpg|thumb|right|Protests in [[LGBT culture in New York City|New York City]] against [[Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill|Uganda's Anti-Homosexuality Bill]]]]
{{See also|Heterosexism|Heteronormativity|Biphobia|Homophobia}}

One's [[sexual orientation]] is a "predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality".<ref>''World English Dictionary'', [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sexual+orientation "Sexual Orientation"]</ref> Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sexuality; a term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is often called [[homophobia]]. Many continue to hold negative feelings towards those with non-heterosexual orientations and will discriminate against people who have them or are thought to have them. People of other uncommon sexual orientations also experience discrimination. One study found its sample of heterosexuals to be more prejudiced against [[asexuality|asexual people]] than against homosexual or bisexual people.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Intergroup bias toward "Group X": Evidence of prejudice, dehumanization, avoidance, and discrimination against asexuals |first1=Cara C. |last1=MacInnis |first2=Gordon |last2=Hodson |journal=Group Processes & Intergroup Relations |doi=10.1177/1368430212442419 |volume=15 |number=6 |pages=725–743 |year=2012|s2cid=3056711 }}</ref>

[[Employment discrimination]] based on sexual orientation varies by country. Revealing a lesbian sexual orientation (by means of mentioning an engagement in a rainbow organisation or by mentioning one's partner name) lowers employment opportunities in [[Cyprus]] and Greece but overall, it has no negative effect in Sweden and Belgium.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/13545701.2010.541858|title = Women's Sexual Orientation and Labor Market Outcomes in Greece| journal=Feminist Economics| volume=17| pages=89–117|year = 2011|last1 = Drydakis|first1 = Nick|s2cid = 154771144}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1108/IJM-02-2012-0026|title = Sexual orientation discrimination in the Cypriot labour market. Distastes or uncertainty?| journal=International Journal of Manpower| volume=35| issue=5| pages=720–744|year = 2014|last1 = Drydakis|first1 = Nick| hdl=10419/62444|s2cid = 10103299|url = https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp6684| hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>Ahmed, A. M., Andersson, L., Hammarstedt, M. (2011) [http://www.ifau.se/upload/pdf/se/2011/wp11-21-are-homosexuals-discriminated-against-in-the-hiring-process.pdf Are gays and lesbians discriminated against in the hiring situation?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529055358/http://www.ifau.se/upload/pdf/se/2011/wp11-21-are-homosexuals-discriminated-against-in-the-hiring-process.pdf |date=2015-05-29 }} Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation Working Paper Series 21.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/irj.12078|title = Career lesbians. Getting hired for not having kids?| journal=Industrial Relations Journal| volume=45| issue=6| pages=543–561|year = 2014|last1 = Baert|first1 = Stijn| citeseerx=10.1.1.467.2102|s2cid = 34331459}}</ref> In the latter country, even a positive effect of revealing a lesbian sexual orientation is found for women at their fertile ages.

Besides these academic studies, in 2009, [[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association|ILGA]] published a report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College in [[Stockholm, Sweden]]. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider [[homosexuality]] illegal, five carry the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]] for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country.<ref>"[https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=7883204&page=1 New Benefits for Same-Sex Couples May Be Hard to Implement Abroad]". ABC News. June 22, 2009.</ref> In the report, this is described as "State sponsored homophobia".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2009.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502074613/http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2009.pdf|url-status=dead|title=ILGA: 2009 Report on State Sponsored Homophobia (2009)|archive-date=May 2, 2010}}</ref> This happens in [[Muslim|Islamic]] states, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileID=1111&ZoneID=7&FileCategory=50|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029185853/http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileID=1111&ZoneID=7&FileCategory=50|url-status=dead|title=ILGA:7 countries still put people to death for same-sex acts|archive-date=October 29, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/homosexuality/islam.htm|title=Islamic views of homosexuality|access-date=April 26, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415225546/http://www.religionfacts.com/homosexuality/islam.htm|archive-date=April 15, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> On February 5, 2005, the [[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] issued a reported titled "Iraq: Male homosexuality still a taboo". The article stated, among other things that [[honor killings]] by Iraqis against a gay family member are common and given some legal protection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=51540&SelectRegion=Middle_East|title=AU welcomes progress in peace process|work=IRIN|access-date=April 26, 2016|date=2004-09-29}}</ref> In August 2009, Human Rights Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of being [[LGBT rights in Iraq|gay in Iraq]], including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving the men laxatives.<ref>"[https://www.hrw.org/en/node/85049/section/3 They Want Us Exterminated]". Human Rights Watch. August 16, 2009.</ref> Although gay marriage has been legal in [[South Africa]] since 2006, same-sex unions are often condemned as "un-African".<ref>Harrison, Rebecca. "[https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSTRE52C3MN20090313 South African gangs use rape to "cure" lesbians]". Reuters. March 13, 2009.</ref> Research conducted in 2009 shows 86% of black lesbians from the [[Western Cape]] live in fear of sexual assault.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/mar/12/eudy-simelane-corrective-rape-south-africa | title=Raped and killed for being a lesbian: South Africa ignores 'corrective' attacks| newspaper=The Guardian| date=2009-03-12| last1=Kelly| first1=Annie}}</ref>
{{further|LGBT rights by country or territory}}
[[File:NYC Pride 2019 05.jpg|thumb|The [[NYC Pride March]] is the [[List of largest LGBT events|world's largest LGBT event]]. Regional variation exists with respect to [[toleration|tolerance]], the [[antithesis]] of discrimination, in different parts of the world.]]
A number of countries, especially those in the [[Western world]], have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay [[hate crimes]] and workplace discrimination. Some have also legalized same-sex marriage or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples the same protections and benefits as opposite-sex couples. In 2011, the [[United Nations]] passed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights.

===Reverse discrimination===

{{Main|Reverse discrimination}}
{{see also|Bumiputera (Malaysia)}}
[[File:Protesto contra o sistema de cotas.jpg|thumb|upright|Students protesting against [[racial quota]]s in Brazil: "''Quer uma vaga? Passe no vestibular!''" ("Do you want a spot? Pass the entrance exam!")]]

[[Reverse discrimination]] is discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reverse Discrimination |url=https://www.findlaw.com/employment/employment-discrimination/reverse-discrimination.html |access-date=2023-01-17 |website=Findlaw |language=en-US}}</ref>

This discrimination may seek to redress [[social inequalities]] under which minority groups have had less access to privileges enjoyed by the majority group. In such cases it is intended to remove discrimination that minority groups may already face. Reverse discrimination can be defined as the unequal treatment of members of the majority groups resulting from preferential policies, as in college admissions or employment, intended to remedy earlier discrimination against minorities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Reverse Discrimination|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/reverse+discrimination |website=dictionary.com}}</ref>

Conceptualizing [[affirmative action]] as reverse discrimination became popular in the early- to mid-1970s, a time period that focused on under-representation and action policies intended to remedy the effects of past discrimination in both government and the business world.<ref name="Embrick">{{cite book |last1=Embrick |first1=David G. |editor1-last=Schaefer |editor1-first=Richard T. |title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 1 |date=2008 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-41-292694-2 |pages=12–19 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMUola6pDnkC&q=%22reverse+discrimination%22&pg=PT64 |chapter=Affirmative Action in Education}}</ref>