Editing Dutch grammar (section)

==Nouns==
{{see also|Gender in Dutch grammar}}

In Dutch, nouns are marked for [[Grammatical number|number]] in singular and plural. [[Grammatical case|Cases]] have largely fallen out of use, as have the endings that were used for them. Standard Dutch has three [[Grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine and neuter. However, in large parts of the [[Netherlands]] there is no grammatical distinction between what were originally masculine and feminine genders, and there is only a distinction between the resultant common and neuter. Gender is not overtly marked on nouns either, and must be learned for each noun.

===Plural===

The [[plural]] is formed by addition of {{lang|nl|-en}} (pronounced {{IPA|/ən/}} or {{IPA|/ə/}}) or {{lang|nl|-s}}, with the usual spelling changes in the case of the former. Which of the two is used is somewhat unpredictable, although some general rules can be given:

* Single-syllable words, which are common in Dutch, normally use {{lang|nl|-en}}:
** {{lang|nl|deur}} "door" → {{lang|nl|deuren}}
** {{lang|nl|boot}} "boat" → {{lang|nl|boten}}
** {{lang|nl|huis}} "house" → {{lang|nl|huizen}}
** {{lang|nl|dief}} "thief" → {{lang|nl|dieven}}
* Words ending in a [[schwa]] {{IPA|/ə/}} often use {{lang|nl|-s}}, but a sizable number use {{lang|nl|-n}}, particularly if they are older. Some nouns may allow either ending. Nouns that are substantivised forms of adjectives always use {{lang|nl|-n}}.
** {{lang|nl|tante}} "aunt" → {{lang|nl|tantes}}
** {{lang|nl|chocolade}} "chocolate" → {{lang|nl|chocolades}}
** {{lang|nl|bode}} "messenger" → {{lang|nl|boden}} or {{lang|nl|bodes}}
** {{lang|nl|oxide}} "oxide" → {{lang|nl|oxiden}}
** {{lang|nl|grote}} "great one" → {{lang|nl|groten}}
* Relatively modern words ending in a long vowel use {{lang|nl|-'s}} (with an apostrophe), but if they end in {{lang|nl|-ee}} or {{lang|nl|-é}} then no apostrophe is used. Older ones generally use {{lang|nl|-en}} or {{lang|nl|-ën}} (with diaeresis).
** {{lang|nl|baby}} "baby" → {{lang|nl|baby's}}
** {{lang|nl|café}} "café, bar, pub" → {{lang|nl|cafés}}
** {{lang|nl|pizza}} "pizza" → {{lang|nl|pizza's}}
** {{lang|nl|radio}} "radio" → {{lang|nl|radio's}}
** {{lang|nl|ree}} "roe" → {{lang|nl|reeën}}
** {{lang|nl|la}} (also {{lang|nl|lade}}) "drawer" → {{lang|nl|laden}} (but in colloquial usage sometimes also {{lang|nl|la's}})
* Words ending in unstressed {{lang|nl|-el}} or {{lang|nl|-er}} usually use {{lang|nl|-s}}. If {{lang|nl|-en}} is allowed it tends to be more archaic or poetic.
** {{lang|nl|akker}} "agricultural field" → {{lang|nl|akkers}}
** {{lang|nl|appel}} "apple" → {{lang|nl|appels}} or (archaic) {{lang|nl|appelen}} (note: for the derived noun {{lang|nl|aardappel}} "potato", the plural {{lang|nl|aardappelen}} is still common, alongside {{lang|nl|aardappels}})
** {{lang|nl|lepel}} "spoon" → {{lang|nl|lepels}}
** {{lang|nl|sleutel}} "key" → {{lang|nl|sleutels}}
** {{lang|nl|vader}} "father" → {{lang|nl|vaders}} or (archaic) {{lang|nl|vaderen}}
* Initialisms (words pronounced as letters) follow the rules for whatever the final syllable suggests, usually by adding {{lang|nl|-s}} but occasionally {{lang|nl|-en}}:
** {{lang|nl|APK}} "vehicle inspection" → {{lang|nl|APK's}}
** {{lang|nl|cd}} "CD" → {{lang|nl|cd's}}

====Plurals with vowel change====

A number of common nouns inherited from [[Old Dutch language|Old Dutch]] have a short vowel in the singular but a long vowel in the plural. When short {{lang|nl|i}} is lengthened in this way, it becomes long {{lang|nl|e}}.

* {{lang|nl|dag}} {{IPA|/dɑx/}} "day" → {{lang|nl|dagen}} {{IPA|/ˈdaːɣə(n)/}} "days"
* {{lang|nl|gebrek}} {{IPA|/ɣəˈbrɛk/}} "lack, deficiency" → {{lang|nl|gebreken}} {{IPA|/ɣəˈbreːkə(n)/}} "deficiencies"
* {{lang|nl|schip}} {{IPA|/sxɪp/}} "ship" → {{lang|nl|schepen}} {{IPA|/ˈsxeːpə(n)/}} "ships"
* {{lang|nl|slot}} {{IPA|/slɔt/}} "lock" → {{lang|nl|sloten}} {{IPA|/ˈsloːtə(n)/}} "locks" (also the plural of {{lang|nl|sloot}} "ditch")

Other nouns with this change include: {{lang|nl|bad}} "bath", {{lang|nl|bedrag}} "(money) contribution", {{lang|nl|bevel}} "command", {{lang|nl|blad}} "sheet of paper; magazine" (not "leaf"), {{lang|nl|(aan)bod}} "offer", {{lang|nl|dak}} "roof", {{lang|nl|dal}} "valley", {{lang|nl|gat}} "hole", {{lang|nl|gebed}} "prayer", {{lang|nl|gebod}} "commandment", {{lang|nl|gen}} "gene", {{lang|nl|glas}} "glass", {{lang|nl|god}} "god", {{lang|nl|hertog}} "duke", {{lang|nl|hof}} "court", {{lang|nl|hol}} "cave; burrow", {{lang|nl|lid}} "member", {{lang|nl|lot}} "lottery ticket", {{lang|nl|oorlog}} "war", {{lang|nl|pad}} "path", {{lang|nl|schot}} "shot", {{lang|nl|slag}} "strike, battle", {{lang|nl|smid}} "smith", {{lang|nl|spel}} "large game; spectacle" (not in the sense of a smaller everyday game), {{lang|nl|staf}} "staff", {{lang|nl|vat}} "vat, barrel", {{lang|nl|verbod}} "ban, prohibition", {{lang|nl|verdrag}} "treaty", {{lang|nl|verlof}} "permission", {{lang|nl|weg}} "road, way".

The noun {{lang|nl|stad}} {{IPA|/stɑt/}} "town, city" has [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] in the plural alongside lengthening: {{lang|nl|steden}} {{IPA|/ˈsteːdə(n)/}} "towns, cities". The plural of nouns ending in the suffix {{lang|nl|-heid}} {{IPA|/ɦɛit/}} "-ness, -hood" is irregular {{lang|nl|-heden}} {{IPA|/ɦeːdə(n)/}}.

====Plurals in {{lang|nl|-eren}}====

A few neuter nouns have a plural in {{lang|nl|-eren}}. This ending derives from the old Germanic "z-stem" nouns, and is cognate with the English {{lang|en|-ren}} ({{lang|en|children}}, {{lang|en|brethren}}, etc.). The following nouns have this type of plural:
* {{lang|nl|been}} "bone" → {{lang|nl|beenderen}} (when used in the sense "leg", the plural is the regular {{lang|nl|benen}})
* {{lang|nl|blad}} "leaf" → {{lang|nl|bladeren}} (when used in the sense "sheet, magazine", the plural is {{lang|nl|bladen}})
* {{lang|nl|ei}} "egg" → {{lang|nl|eieren}}
* {{lang|nl|gelid}} "rank, file" → {{lang|nl|gelederen}}
* {{lang|nl|gemoed}} "mood, emotion" → {{lang|nl|gemoederen}}
* {{lang|nl|goed}} "good" → {{lang|nl|goederen}}
* {{lang|nl|hoen}} "fowl" → {{lang|nl|hoenderen}}
* {{lang|nl|kalf}} "calf" → {{lang|nl|kalveren}}
* {{lang|nl|kind}} "child" → {{lang|nl|kinderen}}
* {{lang|nl|kleed}} "cloth" → (archaic) {{lang|nl|klederen}} or {{lang|nl|kleren}} "clothes" (nowadays a [[plurale tantum]] like in English)
* {{lang|nl|lam}} "lamb" → {{lang|nl|lammeren}}
* {{lang|nl|lied}} "song" → {{lang|nl|liederen}} (somewhat dated; the plural of the diminutive is often used instead: {{lang|nl|liedjes}})
* {{lang|nl|rad}} "wheel" → {{lang|nl|raderen}}
* {{lang|nl|rund}} "cattle" → {{lang|nl|runderen}}
* {{lang|nl|volk}} "people, nation" → {{lang|nl|volkeren}} (the regular {{lang|nl|volken}} is also used)

When used in compounds, the stem of these nouns usually includes the {{lang|nl|-er}}. For example: {{lang|nl|ei'''er'''schaal}} "eggshell", {{lang|nl|kind'''er'''arbeid}} "child labour", {{lang|nl|kled'''er'''dracht}} "traditional costume", {{lang|nl|rund'''er'''tartaar}} "beef [[tartare]]". This is not a rule, however, and compounds with the singular form also exist: {{lang|nl|eivorm}} "egg-shape", {{lang|nl|rundvlees}} "beef".

====Foreign plurals====

For a number of nouns of Latin origin, a Latin-like plural may be used. Depending on the word and the formalness of the setting, a regular plural in {{lang|nl|-en}} or {{lang|nl|-s}} can also be used.

* {{lang|nl|museum}} "museum" → {{lang|nl|musea}} or {{lang|nl|museums}}
* {{lang|nl|politicus}} "politician" → {{lang|nl|politici}}

Some modern scientific words borrowed from Latin or Greek form their plurals with vowel lengthening, like the native words listed above. These words are primarily Latin agent nouns ending in {{lang|nl|-or}} and names of particles ending in {{lang|nl|-on}}. Alongside the change in vowel length, there is also a stress shift in the plural, patterned on the Latin third declension where this also occurs. In each case, the singular follows a Latin-like stress, while the plural stresses the {{lang|nl|-on-}} or {{lang|nl|-or-}}. Some examples:

* {{lang|nl|elektron}} ({{IPA|/eːˈlɛktrɔn/}} "electron") → {{lang|nl|elektronen}} ({{IPA|/eːlɛkˈtroːnə(n)/}} "electrons")
* {{lang|nl|doctor}} ({{IPA|/ˈdɔktɔr/}} "doctor (holder of a doctorate)") → {{lang|nl|doctoren}} ({{IPA|/dɔkˈtoːrə(n)/}} "doctors")
* {{lang|nl|graviton}} ({{IPA|/ˈɣraːvitɔn/}} "graviton") → {{lang|nl|gravitonen}} ({{IPA|/ɣraːviˈtoːnə(n)/}} "gravitons")
* {{lang|nl|reactor}} ({{IPA|/reːˈɑktɔr/}} "reactor") → {{lang|nl|reactoren}} ({{IPA|/reːɑkˈtoːrə(n)/}} "reactors")

Words borrowed from English or French will generally form their plural in {{lang|nl|-s}}, in imitation of the native plural of those languages. This applies especially to recent borrowings.

* {{lang|nl|harddisk}} → {{lang|nl|harddisks}}
* {{lang|nl|bonbon}} → {{lang|nl|bonbons}}

===Diminutive===

Many nouns have a [[diminutive]] form alongside the normal base form. This form is used to indicate small size, or emphasize a particular endearing quality. Use of diminutives is very common, so much that they could be considered part of the noun's inflectional paradigm.

There are two basic ways to form the diminutive: with {{lang|nl|-tje}} or with {{lang|nl|-ke(n)}}. The former is the standard way, while the latter is found in some dialects, mostly in the south ([[Brabantian dialect|Brabantian]] and [[Limburgish]]). The diminutive on {{lang|nl|-ke(n)}} is common in informal Belgian Dutch (due to final-n deletion in Dutch, the final -n is often not pronounced). All diminutives have neuter gender, no matter what the gender of the original noun was. The plural is always formed with {{lang|nl|-s}}.

====Diminutive in {{lang|nl|-tje}}====

The basic suffix {{lang|nl|-tje}} is modified in different ways depending on the final sounds of the noun it is attached to.

The {{lang|nl|-t-}} is removed from the ending when added to words ending in a [[fricative]] or [[plosive]] (-b, -c, -d, -f, -g, -ch, -k, -p, -q, -s, -sj, -t, -v, -x, -z).

* hond → hondje
* brief → briefje
* hok → hokje
* vis → visje
* douche → doucheje ({{IPA|/duʃ/}} → {{IPA|/ˈduʃ(j)ə/}})
* race → raceje ({{IPA|/reːs/}} → {{IPA|/ˈreːsjə/}} ~ {{IPA|/ˈreːʃə/}})

The last two words end in a consonant sound, despite not being spelled that way.

When the vowel of the last syllable is both short and stressed, and it is followed by a [[sonorant]], an extra schwa {{lang|nl|-e-}} is inserted, giving {{lang|nl|-etje}}.
* kom → kommetje
* pil → pilletje
* lam → lammetje
* ding → dingetje
* vriendin → vriendinnetje
* baron → baronnetje

In all other cases, the basic form {{lang|nl|-tje}} is used. This includes:
* Words ending in a stressed tense/long vowel or [[diphthong]].
* Words ending in any unstressed vowel.
* Words ending in one of the above types of vowel, followed by {{lang|nl|-l}}, {{lang|nl|-n}}, {{lang|nl|-r}}.
* Words ending in one of the above types of vowel, followed by {{lang|nl|-m}}. The resulting combination {{lang|nl|-mtje}} is assimilated to {{lang|nl|-mpje}}.
* Words ending in one of the above types of vowel, followed by {{lang|nl|-ng}}. The resulting combination {{lang|nl|-ngtje}} is assimilated to {{lang|nl|-nkje}}.

When the final vowel is long, it is doubled accordingly. Final {{lang|nl|-i}}, which does not really occur in native Dutch words, is converted into {{lang|nl|-ie}}. Final {{lang|nl|-y}} gets an apostrophe.

* koe → koetje
* auto → autootje
* mama → mamaatje
* vrouw → vrouwtje
* taxi → taxietje
* baby → baby'tje
* school → schooltje
* kuil → kuiltje
* maan → maantje
* muur → muurtje
* appel → appeltje
* boom → boompje
* duim → duimpje
* bodem → bodempje
* koning → koninkje
* houding → houdinkje

In the case of the vowels {{lang|nl|oe}} and {{lang|nl|ie}}, there is some ambiguity. While pronounced short in many dialects, they can also be long for some speakers, so forms both with and without the extra {{lang|nl|-e-}} can be found.
* bloem → bloemetje ''or'' bloempje (however {{lang|nl|bloemetje}} has an additional meaning: {{lang|en|bouquet}})<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://taaladvies.net/taal/advies/vraag/1195/bloem_bloempje_bloemetje/|title = Bloempje / Bloemetje – Taaladvies}}</ref>
* wiel → wieltje ''or'' wieletje

====Diminutive in {{lang|nl|-ke(n)}}====

In the south, the ending {{lang|nl|-ke(n)}} is often used instead. It also has different forms depending on the preceding sounds, with rules very similar to those for the {{lang|nl|-tje}} ending.

An older form of this ending was {{lang|nl|-ken}}, which is more like its German cognate {{lang|de|-chen}}. This form is not used much today, due to final n-deletion which is common in Dutch, but it is still found in older texts and names. A famous example is {{lang|nl|[[Manneken Pis]]}}.

When the word ends in a [[Velar consonant|velar]] consonant (-g, -ch, -k, -ng), an extra [[Dissimilation|dissimilative]] {{lang|nl|-s-}} is inserted, giving {{lang|nl|-ske(n)}}.
* dag → dagske
* lach → lachske
* stok → stokske
* ding → dingske
* koning → koningske

An extra {{lang|nl|-e-}} is inserted in three cases, giving {{lang|nl|-eke(n)}}:
* Words ending in a non-velar plosive (-p, -b, -t, -d).
* Words ending in {{lang|nl|-n}}, which is not a velar itself but would assimilate to one before the following {{lang|nl|-k-}}.
* Words ending in {{lang|nl|-m}}, {{lang|nl|-l}} or {{lang|nl|-r}} preceded by a stressed short vowel.

Examples:

* hond → hondeke
* voet → voeteke
* map → mappeke
* boon → boneke
* bon → bonneke
* kom → kommeke
* hol → holleke
* bar → barreke

In all other cases, the ending is the basic {{lang|nl|-ke(n)}}. This includes:
* Words ending in a vowel.
* Words ending in a non-velar [[fricative]] (-f, -v, -s, -z).
* Words ending in {{lang|nl|-m}}, {{lang|nl|-l}}, {{lang|nl|-r}} preceded by a long vowel, [[diphthong]], or unstressed vowel.

Examples:

* mama → mamake
* koe → koeke
* slof → slofke
* doos → dooske
* school → schoolke
* muur → muurke
* boom → boomke
* bodem → bodemke

====[[Diaeresis (diacritic)|Diaeresis]] in diminutives====

Standard Dutch, as well as most dialects, do not use [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] as a grammatical marker. However, some eastern dialects (East [[Brabantian dialect|Brabantian]], [[Limburgish]] and many [[Low Saxon dialects in the Netherlands|Low Saxon]] areas) have regular diaeresis of the preceding vowel in diminutives. As this is not a standard feature, it is rare in the written language except when used to evoke a local feeling. It can be more common in the spoken language. Some examples:

* {{lang|nl|man}} → {{lang|nl|menneke}}
* {{lang|nl|boom}} → {{lang|nl|beumke}}
* {{lang|nl|pop}} → {{lang|nl|pupke}}

====Diminutives of nouns with irregular plurals====

Nouns with irregular plurals tend to have the same irregularity in the diminutive as well. This is not a rule, however, and both forms can often be found. For some nouns, the irregularity is more common in the plural of the diminutive, and only rarely appears in the singular. Some examples:

* {{lang|nl|blad}} "leaf; sheet of paper" → {{lang|nl|blaadje}} "small leaf; folio", in plural also {{lang|nl|bladertjes}}
* {{lang|nl|dag}} "day" → {{lang|nl|dagje}} "short day", in plural also {{lang|nl|daagjes}}
* {{lang|nl|glas}} "drinking glass" → {{lang|nl|glaasje}} "small glass"
* {{lang|nl|kind}} "child" → {{lang|nl|kindje}} "toddler", in plural also {{lang|nl|kindertjes}}
* {{lang|nl|pad}} "path" → {{lang|nl|paadje}} "narrow or short path" (vs. {{lang|nl|pad}} "toad" → {{lang|nl|padje}} "toadlet")
* {{lang|nl|rad}} "wheel" → {{lang|nl|radje}} or {{lang|nl|radertje}} "little wheel"
* {{lang|nl|schip}} "ship" → {{lang|nl|scheepje}} "little ship"
* {{lang|nl|spel}} "game" → {{lang|nl|speeltje}} "toy"
* {{lang|nl|vat}} "barrel" → {{lang|nl|vaatje}} "small barrel"

===Cases===
{{main|Archaic Dutch declension}}

[[Noun cases]] were still prescribed in the formal written standard up until the 1940s, but were abolished then because they had long disappeared from the spoken language. Because of this, they are nowadays restricted mostly to set phrases and are [[Archaism|archaic]]. The former Dutch case system resembled that of modern [[German language|German]], and distinguished four cases: [[Nominative case|nominative]] (subject), [[Genitive case|genitive]] (possession or relation), [[Dative case|dative]] (indirect object, object of preposition) and [[Accusative case|accusative]] (direct object, object of preposition). Only the nominative and genitive are productive, with the genitive seldom used and only surviving in the margins of the language. Some examples of the three non-nominative cases in fixed expressions:

* Genitive: {{lang|nl|de dag '''des''' oordeel'''s'''}} "judgement day", {{lang|nl|Koninkrijk '''der''' Nederlanden}} "Kingdom of the Nederlands"
* Dative: {{lang|nl|in feit'''e'''}} "in fact", {{lang|nl|heden '''ten''' dag'''e'''}} "nowadays", {{lang|nl|bij deze'''n'''}} "hereby"
* Accusative: {{lang|nl|op '''den''' duur}} "eventually", {{lang|nl|goede'''n'''avond}} "good evening"

The role of cases has been taken over by prepositions and word order in modern Dutch. For example, the distinction between direct and indirect object is now made by placing the indirect object before the direct object, or by using the preposition ''aan'' "to" with the indirect object. The genitive is replaced with the preposition ''van'' "of". Usage of cases with prepositions has disappeared as well. Nowadays, the case of each noun is interpreted mainly by word order. Nominatives go first, datives after, and lastly the accusatives. Nouns after prepositions are also accusative.

Cases are still occasionally used productively, which are often [[calque]]s of existing phrases. This is particularly true of the genitive case,<ref>http://www.nytud.hu/imm14/abs/scott.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> which is still used occasionally to evoke a formal style. Speakers' awareness of how the cases were originally used is generally low. People may confuse the old masculine/neuter genitive article {{lang|nl|des}} and the corresponding noun ending {{lang|nl|-s}} with the article {{lang|nl|der}} (with no ending) used for feminine or plural nouns.