Editing Eh (section)

===Canada===

==== History ====
The first clear evidence of ''eh''<nowiki/>'s usage in Canada was in 1836, through the writings of [[Thomas Chandler Haliburton]], a [[Nova Scotia|Nova-Scotian]] district judge and comical writer.<ref name=":0" /> ''Eh'' was first recognized as being a marker of being Canadian in 1959 by Harold B. Allen; he stated that ''eh'' is "so exclusively a Canadian feature that immigration officials use it as an identifying clue.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Allen |first=Harold B. |date=1959 |title=Canadian-American Speech Differences Along the Middle Border |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/canadian-journal-of-linguistics-revue-canadienne-de-linguistique/article/abs/canadianamerican-speech-differences-along-the-middle-border/B0D5A737F888B7E2C043A3B23B0C2DE8 |journal=Canadian Journal of Linguistics |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=17–24 |doi=10.1017/S0008413100018521 |s2cid=149272129 |issn=0008-4131|url-access=subscription }}</ref>" However, despite mainly being perceived as a stereotypical marker of Canadian identity, ''eh'' was not recognized initially as a [[Canadianism]] in the ''[[Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles]]'' (DCHP-1).<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Avis |first=Walter S. |date=1972 |title=So eh? is Canadian, eh? |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/canadian-journal-of-linguistics-revue-canadienne-de-linguistique/article/abs/so-eh-is-canadian-eh/E1249B158D4E4DEFEC65E79EF954965D |journal=Canadian Journal of Linguistics |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2–3 |pages=89–104 |doi=10.1017/S0008413100007039 |s2cid=148790860 |issn=0008-4131|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Chief editor of the DCHP-1, Walter Avis, argued that it should not be included due to its historical use in [[British English]] and its frequency in [[American English|American]], [[Australian English|Australian]], and [[New Zealand English]].<ref name=":1" /> However, despite ''eh''<nowiki/>'s origins, it has become more frequently used in Canada than in the UK and the US, and in a broader variety of contexts.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Gold |first=Elaine |date=2010 |title=Canadian Eh? From Eh to Zed |url=https://qspace.library.queensu.ca/handle/1974/27537 |journal=Canadian English: A Linguistic Reader |issue=6 |pages=92–111 |via=Queen's University Strathy Language Unit}}</ref> Due to this frequency, it has since been included in the [[DCHP-2]] as a Preservation of British English that is Culturally Significant.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last1=Dollinger |first1=Stefan |last2=Fee |first2=Margery |date=March 2017 |title=Eh |url=http://apps.plotandscatter.com:8080/dchp2/Entries/view/eh |website=A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles (Second Edition)}}</ref>

==== Uses ====
According to the [[DCHP-2]], there are five main uses of ''eh'' with four subtypes.<ref name=":3" /> The first is used to elicit confirmation (1a),<ref name=":3" />  which can be used in sentences like "So that's what he thinks, eh?" A subtype of this use is to elicit acknowledgement (1b).<ref name=":3" /> This applies to the acknowledgment of a fact in contrast to belief or opinion.<ref name=":3" /> For example, one could say "I have a new dog, eh?" The second subtype (1c) is to confirm agreement.<ref name=":3" /> This is used to increase the chance of acceptance of a suggestion, [[Tone (linguistics)|toning down]] statements.<ref name=":3" /> The fourth, (1d), is used as an exclamative over a shared experience, for example "What a great game, eh?"<ref name=":3" />  The final (1e) is to confirm compliance, like asking "Will you?" The belief is that this tones down a command or request.<ref name=":3" /> 

The second main use of ''eh'' is as an expression of disbelief to express one's surprise over the offered information (2).<ref name=":3" /> Use 3 is to elicit repetition, and is referred to as the "Pardon ''eh''." It is used synonymously with "I beg your pardon?" in the sense of asking for a repetition of what was said.<ref name=":3" /> The fourth use is a distinctly Canadian use, identified as the narrative ''eh''.<ref name=":3" /> It is a rarer form, and is claimed to be found primarily in oral evidence of Canadian origin.<ref name=":1" /> The final use of ''eh'' is as a [[metalinguistic]] commentary to express a link with Canada or rural Canada (5).<ref name=":3" /> This form is commentary on the Canadian status of ''eh'' and has contributed its share to the registration of ''eh'' and [[commodification]] of the form in association with Canada.<ref name=":3" /> A popular example of its use is in the phrase "How's it goin', ''eh''?"<ref name=":3" />

Due to English and French being [[Official bilingualism in Canada|Canada's official languages]], the popularity of ''eh''<nowiki/>'s usage in Canada is believed to be influenced by French.<ref name=":2" /> The [[French Canadian]] {{Lang|fr-ca|hein}} sounds similar to a nasalized Canadian ''eh'', and the two share similar functions. Due to this, the increased use of ''eh'' in Canada may have been influenced by the frequent use of ''{{Lang|fr-ca|hein}}'' in [[Canadian French]].<ref name=":2" />

The term is used most frequently among blue-collar workers, and the most popular form used is for opinions and exclamations.<ref name=":3" /> While there is a prevalent stereotype that men use ''eh'' more than women, survey results suggest similar use frequencies. Overall, between both men and women, the pardon-''eh'' is used much less than the observation-''eh''.<ref name=":2" /> The most positively viewed usage of ''eh'' is the imperative "I know, ''eh''?" form with the exclamation-''eh'' and opinion-''eh'' close behind.<ref name=":2" /> The most negatively viewed usage is the anecdotal, narrative-''eh''.<ref name=":2" /> This perception is due to opinions surrounding the speakers of the narrative-''eh'', who are categorized as uneducated, lower-class, rural, and male, akin to the [[Bob and Doug McKenzie|McKenzie brothers]] from the comedy sketch "Great White North," which first appeared during [[Second City Television]]'s (SCTV) third season.<ref name=":2" />

Regionally, while usage is similar across the ten provinces, with the use of ''eh'' not having changed significantly over the past 25 years, there is some variation.<ref name=":2" /> For example, in [[Quebec]], respondents use ''eh'' for 'pardon' more than other Canadians.<ref name=":2" /> While usage has not changed significantly across Canada, the overall frequency of ''eh'' has declined among speakers born in the 1960s or later. This decrease has been prevalent in big cities such as [[Vancouver]] and [[Toronto]].<ref name=":3" /> Despite this decline, there have been high recognition rates and uptake of the Canadian ''eh'' among immigrant populations.<ref name=":2" />

==== Iconography ====
''Eh'' has gained such recognition among Canadians that it is used consciously and frequently by newspaper journalists and others in informal articles and reports.<ref name=":3" /> Also, ''eh'' is attributed freely in reported conversations with all men, including athletes, professors, and politicians, such as [[Pierre Trudeau]].<ref name=":2" />

The prevalence of ''eh'' in Canadian iconography is strongly associated with its recognition as part of the Canadian national or regional identity. In print, it is used primarily to signify 'Canadian,' with many websites incorporating ''eh'' into their URLs to indicate a Canadian connection.<ref name=":2" /> It is also popularly incorporated into Canadian-targeted marketing campaigns, such as when [[Smarties]]' Canadian-themed packaging was labelled "SMARTIES ''eh''?"<ref name=":2" />

The usage of ''eh'' in Canada is occasionally mocked in the [[United States]], where some view its use as a stereotypical Canadianism. Such stereotypes have been reinforced in popular culture and were famously lampooned in ''[[South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut]]''. Singer [[Don Freed]], in his song "[[Saskatchewan]]," declares, "What is this '''Eh''?'-nonsense? I wouldn't speak like that if I were paid to". There are many products displaying the phrase, such as T-shirts and coffee mugs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canada eh? |url=http://rockashirt.com/product_info.php?cPath=6536&products_id=4629 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717022921/http://rockashirt.com/canada-canadian-funny-cool-shirt-white-p-4629.html |archive-date=July 17, 2012 |access-date=February 13, 2010 |website=Rock A Shirt}}</ref>

==== Future usage ====
The future of ''eh'' in Canada is vague but promising. Three critical factors that will shape the future of this expression include speaker attitudes, the possible replacement of the expressions by young speakers, and new Canadians' adoption of ''eh''.<ref name=":2" /> Students account for a large percentage of ''eh'' users and continue to contribute to the growing community.<ref name=":2" /> Because of this projected increase in the usage of ''eh'', the previous negative connotation surrounding the narrative-''eh'' will most likely dwindle.<ref name=":2" /> The future of ''eh'' is quite optimistic and there is room for expansion due to the various uses possible. In addition to the popularity amongst students, immigrants are essential to the future of ''eh''.<ref name=":2" /> Survey results on immigrant recognition of ''eh'' show that immigrants had high rates of recognition for most types of ''eh'', with opinion-''eh'' and exclamation-''eh'' at the top.<ref name=":2" /> The data shows that while the usage of ''eh'' in immigrant countries is different, it is still common.<ref name=":2" /> This shows that even though native speakers still use ''eh'' more frequently, the future of ''eh'' is still optimistic. Altogether, Canada's link with [[bilingualism]] has contributed to ''eh''<nowiki/>'s common usage, and its recognition amongst immigrants shows that ''eh'' will continue to be prevalent in Canadian culture.<ref name=":2" />