Editing Gemination (section)

==Examples==

===Afroasiatic languages===

====Arabic====
Written [[Arabic]] indicates gemination with a diacritic ([[Arabic diacritics|{{transliteration|ar|ḥaraka}}]]) shaped like a lowercase Greek [[omega]] or a rounded Latin ''w'', called the {{lang|ar|شَدَّة}} [[shadda|{{transliteration|ar|shadda}}]]: {{lang|ar|ّ&nbsp;}}. Written above the consonant that is to be doubled, the {{transliteration|ar|shadda}} is often used to [[ambiguity|disambiguate]] words that differ only in the doubling of a consonant where the word intended is not clear from the context. For example, in Arabic, [[Arabic verbs#Derivational categories, conjugations|Form I]] verbs and [[Arabic verbs#Derivational categories, conjugations|Form II]] verbs differ only in the doubling of the middle consonant of the triliteral root in the latter form, ''e.&nbsp;g.'', {{lang|ar|درس}} {{transliteration|ar|darasa}} (with full diacritics: {{lang|ar|دَرَسَ}}) is a Form I verb meaning ''to study'', whereas {{lang|ar|درّس}} {{transliteration|ar|darrasa}} (with full diacritics: {{lang|ar|دَرَّسَ}}) is the corresponding Form II verb, with the middle {{transliteration|ar|r}} consonant doubled, meaning ''to teach''.

====Berber====
In [[Berber languages|Berber]], each consonant has a geminate counterpart, and gemination is lexically contrastive. The distinction between single and geminate consonants is attested in medial position as well as in absolute initial and final positions.

*{{Transliteration|ber|ini}} 'say'
*{{Transliteration|ber|inni}} 'those in question'
*{{Transliteration|ber|akal}} 'earth, soil'
*{{Transliteration|ber|akkal}} 'loss'
*{{Transliteration|ber|imi}} 'mouth'
*{{Transliteration|ber|immi}} 'mother'
*{{Transliteration|ber|ifis}} 'hyena'
*{{Transliteration|ber|ifiss}} 'he was quiet'
*{{Transliteration|ber|tamda}} 'pond, lake, oasis'
*{{Transliteration|ber|tamedda}} 'brown buzzard, hawk'

In addition to lexical geminates, Berber also has phonologically-derived and morphologically-derived geminates. Phonological alternations can surface by concatenation (e.g., {{IPA|[fas sin]}} 'give him two!') or by complete assimilation (e.g. {{IPA|1=/rad = k i-sli/}} {{IPA|[rakk isli]}} 'he will touch you'). Morphological alternations include imperfective gemination, with some Berber verbs forming their
imperfective stem by geminating one consonant in their perfective stem (e.g., {{IPA|[ftu]}} 'go! PF', {{IPA|[fttu]}} 'go! IMPF'), as well as quantity alternations between singular and plural forms (e.g., {{IPA|[afus]}} 'hand', {{IPA|[ifassn]}} 'hands').

===Austronesian languages===
[[Austronesian languages]] in the [[Philippines]], [[Micronesia]], and [[Sulawesi]] are known to have geminate consonants.<ref name="Blust2013">Blust, Robert. (2013). ''The Austronesian Languages (Rev. ed.)''. Australian National University.</ref>

====Kavalan====
The [[Formosan languages|Formosan language]] [[Kavalan language|Kavalan]] makes use of gemination to mark intensity, as in {{Lang|ckv|sukaw}} 'bad' vs. {{Lang|ckv|sukkaw}} 'very bad'.<ref name="Blust2013" />

==== Malay dialects ====
Word-initial gemination occurs in various [[Malay language|Malay]] dialects, particularly those found on the east coast of the [[Malay Peninsula]] such as [[Kelantan-Pattani Malay]] and [[Terengganu Malay]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yupho |first=Nawanit |date=6 February 1989 |title=Consonant Clusters and Stress Rules in Pattani Malay |journal=[[Mon-Khmer Studies]] |pages=129–133 |via=SEAlang}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Nawawi|first=Nazarina|date=14 January 2013|title=Kajian Dialek Trengganu|url=http://www.slideshare.net/nazarinanawawi/kajian-dialek-trengganu|access-date=7 June 2021|website=slideshare|language=ms}}</ref> Gemination in these dialects of Malay occurs for various purposes such as:

* To form a shortened free variant of a word or phrase so that:
** {{Lang|ms|buwi}} {{IPA|/buwi/}} > {{IPA|/wːi/}} 'give'
** {{Lang|ms|ke darat}} {{IPA|/kə darat/}} > {{IPA|/dːarat/}} 'to/at/from the shore'
* A replacement of [[reduplication]] for its [[Reduplication#Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian)|various uses]] (e.g. to denote plural, to form a different word, etc.) in Standard Malay so that:
** {{Lang|ms|budak-budak}} {{IPA|/budak budak/}} > {{IPA|/bːudak/}} 'children'
** {{Lang|ms|layang-layang}} {{IPA|/lajaŋ lajaŋ/}} > {{IPA|/lːajaŋ/}} 'kite'

====Tuvaluan====
The [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian language]] [[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]] allows for word-initial geminates, such as {{Lang|tvl|mmala}} 'overcooked'.<ref name="Jack">{{cite book |last1= Jackson|first1= Geoff and Jenny |title=An introduction to Tuvaluan|year=1999 |publisher= Suva: Oceania Printers }}</ref>

===Indo-European languages===

====English====
In [[English phonology]], consonant length is not distinctive within [[root word]]s. For instance, ''baggage'' is pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|æ|ɡ|ɪ|dʒ}}, not {{IPA|*/bæɡːɪdʒ/}}. However, phonetic gemination does occur marginally.

Gemination is found across words and across morphemes when the last consonant in a given word and the first consonant in the following word are the same [[fricative]], [[nasal consonant|nasal]], or [[stop consonant|stop]].<ref name="benhedia">{{Cite book
| vauthors = Ben Hedia S
| title = Gemination and degemination in English affixation: Investigating the interplay between morphology, phonology and phonetics
| place = Berlin
| publisher = Language Science Press
| date = 2019
| format = pdf
| url = http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/221
| doi = 10.5281/zenodo.3232849
| doi-access=free
| isbn = 978-3-96110-188-7
}}</ref>

For instance:
* b: ''subbasement'' {{IPA|[ˈsʌb.beɪs.mənt]}}
* d: ''midday'' {{IPA|[ˈmɪdˌdeɪ]}}
* f: ''life force'' {{IPA|[ˈlaɪfˌfɔ(ɹ)s]}}
* g: ''egg girl'' {{IPA|[ˈɛɡ.ɡɝl]}}
* k: ''bookkeeper'' {{IPA|[ˈbʊk̚ˌkɪi.pə(ɹ)]}}
* l: ''wholly'' {{IPA|[ˈhoʊl.li]}} (compare ''holy'')
* m: ''calm man'' {{IPA|[ˌkɑːmˈmæn]}} or ''roommate'' {{IPA|[ˈrʊum.meɪt]}} (in some dialects) or ''prime minister'' {{IPA|[ˌpɹaɪmˈmɪnɪstə(ɹ)]}}
* n: ''evenness'' {{IPA|[ˈɪi.vən.nəs]}}
* p: ''lamppost'' {{IPA|[ˈlæmp̚ˌpoʊst]}} (compare ''lamb post'', ''compost'')
* r: ''interregnum'' {{IPA|[ˌɪn.tə(ɹ)ˈɹɛɡ.nəm]}} or ''fire road'' {{IPA|[ˈfaɪəɹˌɹoʊd]}}
* s: ''misspell'' {{IPA|[ˌmɪsˈspɛl]}} or ''this saddle'' {{IPA|[ðɪsˈsædəl]}}
* sh: ''fish shop'' {{IPA|[ˈfɪʃ.ʃɒp]}}
* t: ''cat tail'' {{IPA|[ˈkæt̚ˌteɪl]}}
* th: ''both thighs'' {{IPA|[ˈboʊθ'θaɪz]}}
* v: ''live voter'' {{IPA|[ˈlaɪv.voʊtə(ɹ)]}}
* z: ''pays zero'' {{IPA|[ˈpeɪzˈziˌɹoʊ]}}

With [[affricate]]s, however, this does not occur. For instance:
* ''orange juice'' {{IPA|[ˈɒɹɪndʒ.dʒʊus]}}

In most instances, the absence of this doubling does not affect the meaning, though it may confuse the listener momentarily. The following [[minimal pair]]s represent examples where the doubling ''does'' affect the meaning in most accents:

* ''ten nails'' versus ''ten ales''
* ''this sin'' versus ''this inn''
* ''five valleys'' versus ''five alleys''
* ''his zone'' versus ''his own''
* ''mead day'' versus ''me-day''
* ''unnamed'' {{IPA|[ˌʌnˈneɪmd]}} versus ''unaimed'' {{IPA|[ʌnˈeɪmd]}}
* ''forerunner'' {{IPA|[ˈfɔ(ɹ)ˌɹənə(ɹ)]}} versus ''foreigner'' {{IPA|[ˈfɔɹənəɹ]}}

Note that whenever {{IPA|[(ɹ)]}} appears (in brackets), non-rhotic dialects of English don't have the gemination, but rather lengthen the preceding vowel.

In some dialects gemination is also found for some words when the suffix ''-ly'' follows a root ending in -l or -ll, as in:
* ''solely'' {{IPA|[ˈsoʊl.li]}}
but not
* ''usually'' {{IPA|[ˈjʊuˌʒ(ʊ)ə.li]}}

In some varieties of [[Welsh English]], the process takes place indiscriminately between vowels, e.g. in ''money'' {{IPA|[ˈmɜn.niː]}} but it also applies with graphemic duplication (thus, orthographically dictated), e.g. ''butter'' {{IPA|[ˈbɜt̚.tə]}}<ref>Crystal, David (2003). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language'' Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, p. 335</ref>

====French====
In French, gemination is usually not phonologically relevant and therefore does not allow words to be distinguished: it mostly corresponds to an accent of insistence ({{Lang|fr|c'est terrifiant}} realised {{IPA|[ˈtɛʁ.ʁi.fjɑ̃]|lang=fr}}), or meets hyper-correction criteria: one "corrects" one's pronunciation, despite the usual phonology, to be closer to a realization that one imagines to be more correct: thus, the word ''illusion'' is sometimes pronounced {{IPA|[il.lyˈzjɔ̃]|lang=fr}} by influence of the spelling.

However, gemination is distinctive in a few cases. Statements such as {{Lang|fr|elle a dit}} ('she said') ~ {{Lang|fr|elle l'a dit}} ('she said it') {{IPA|/ɛl a di/|lang=fr}} ~ {{IPA|/ɛl l‿a di/|lang=fr}} can commonly be distinguished by gemination. In a more sustained pronunciation, gemination distinguishes the conditional (and possibly the future tense) from the imperfect: {{Lang|fr|courrais}} 'would run' {{IPA|/kuʁ.ʁɛ/|lang=fr}} vs. {{Lang|fr|courais}} 'ran' {{IPA|/ku.ʁɛ/|lang=fr}}; or the indicative from the subjunctive: {{Lang|fr|croyons}} 'we believe' {{IPA|/kʁwa.jɔ̃/|lang=fr}} vs. {{Lang|fr|croyions}} 'we believed' {{IPA|/kʁwaj.jɔ̃/|lang=fr}}.

====Greek====
{{see also|Ancient Greek phonology#Doubled consonants|l1=Ancient Greek phonology: Doubled consonants}}
In [[Ancient Greek]], consonant length was distinctive, e.g., {{lang|grc|μέ'''λ'''ω}} {{IPA|[mélɔː]}} 'I am of interest' vs. {{lang|grc|μέ'''λλ'''ω}} {{IPA|[mélːɔː]}} 'I am going to'. The distinction has been lost in the [[Standard Modern Greek|standard]] and most other [[Varieties of Modern Greek|varieties]], with the exception of [[Cypriot Greek#Geminates|Cypriot]] (where it might carry over from Ancient Greek or arise from a number of synchronic and diachronic assimilatory processes, or even spontaneously), some varieties of the southeastern Aegean, and [[Greek-Bovesian|Italy]].

====Hindustani====
Gemination is common in both [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]. It does not occur after long vowels and is found in words of both Indic and Arabic origin, but not in those of Persian origin. In Urdu, gemination is represented by the [[Shadda]] diacritic, which is usually omitted from writings, and mainly written to clear ambiguity. In Hindi, gemination is represented by doubling the geminated consonant, enjoined with the [[Virama]] diacritic.
{| class="wikitable"
!Transliteration
!Hindi
!Urdu
!Meaning
!Etymology
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|pa'''tt'''ā}}
|{{Lang|hi|पत्ता}}
|{{lang|ur|پَتَّہ}}
|'leaf'
|[[Sanskrit]]
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|a'''bb'''ā}}
|{{Lang|hi|अब्बा}}
|{{lang|ur|اَبّا}}
|'father'
| rowspan="2" |[[Arabic]]
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|da'''jj'''āl}}
|{{Lang|hi|दज्जाल}}
|{{lang|ur|دَجّال}}
|'anti-christ'
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|ḍa'''bb'''ā}}
|{{Lang|hi|डब्बा}}
|{{lang|ur|ڈَبَّہ}}
|'box'
|[[Sanskrit]]
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|ja'''nn'''at}}
|{{Lang|hi|जन्नत}}
|{{Lang|ur|جَنَّت}}
|'heaven'
|[[Arabic]]
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|ga'''dd'''ā}}
|{{Lang|hi|गद्दा}}
|{{Lang|ur|گَدّا}}
|'mattress'
|[[Sanskrit]]
|}

=====Aspirated consonants=====
Gemination of aspirated consonants in Hindi are formed by combining the corresponding non-aspirated consonant followed by its aspirated counterpart. In vocalised Urdu, the [[shadda]] is placed on the unaspirated consonant followed by the [[Arabic diacritics|short vowel diacritic]], followed by the ''[[Urdu alphabet#Alphabet|do-cashmī hē]]'', which aspirates the preceding consonant. There are few examples where an aspirated consonant is truly doubled.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples of aspirated gemination
!Transliteration
!Hindi
!Urdu
!Meaning
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|pa'''t.th'''ar}}
|{{Lang|hi|पत्थर}}
|{{Lang|ur|پَتَّھر}}
|'stone'
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|ka'''t.th'''ā}}
|{{Lang|hi|कत्था}}
|{{Lang|ur|کَتَّھا}}
|brown spread on {{Transliteration|hi|pān}}
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|a'''d.dh'''ā}}
|{{Lang|hi|अद्धा}}
|{{Lang|ur|اَدَّھا}}
|Hindi slang/short for 'half' – {{Lang|hi|आधा}} ({{Transliteration|hi|ādhā}})
|-
|{{Transliteration|hi|ma'''k.kh'''ī}}
|{{Lang|hi|मक्खी}}
|{{Lang|ur|مَکِّھی}}
|'fly'
|}

====Italian====
{{see also|syntactic doubling}}
Italian is notable among the [[Romance languages]] for its extensive geminated consonants. In [[Italian language|Standard Italian]], word-internal geminates are usually written with two consonants, and geminates are distinctive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dizionario.rai.it/static.aspx?treeID=25 |title=Raddoppiamenti di vocali e di consonanti |year=2009 |work=Dizionario italiano d'ortografia e pronunzia (DOP) |publisher=[[RAI]] |access-date=November 11, 2009 |archive-date=June 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630213933/http://www.dizionario.rai.it/static.aspx?treeID=25 }}</ref> For example, {{lang|it|bevve}}, meaning 'he/she drank', is phonemically {{IPA|/ˈbevve/}} and pronounced {{IPA|it|ˈbevːe|}}, while {{lang|it|beve}} ('he/she drinks/is drinking') is {{IPA|/ˈbeve/}}, pronounced {{IPA|it|ˈbeːve|}}. Tonic syllables are [[mora (linguistics)|bimoraic]] and are therefore composed of either a long vowel in an open syllable (as in {{lang|it|beve}}) or a short vowel in a closed syllable (as in {{lang|it|bevve}}). In varieties with post-vocalic [[lenition|weakening]] of some consonants (e.g. {{IPA|/raˈdʒone/}} → {{IPA|it|raˈʒoːne||generic=yes}} 'reason'), geminates are not affected ({{IPA|/ˈmaddʒo/}} → {{IPA|it|ˈmad͡ʒːo||generic=yes}} 'May').

Double or long consonants occur not only within words but also at word boundaries, and they are then pronounced but not necessarily written: {{lang|it|chi}} + {{lang|it|sa}} = {{lang|it|chissà}} ('who knows') {{IPA|it|kisˈsa|}} and {{lang|it|vado a casa}} ('I am going home') {{IPA|it|ˈvaːdo a kˈkaːsa|}}. All consonants except {{IPAslink|z}} can be geminated. This word-initial gemination is triggered either lexically by the item preceding the lengthening consonant (e.g. by preposition {{Lang|it|a}} 'to, at' in {{IPA|[a kˈkaːsa]|lang=it}} {{Lang|it|a casa}} 'homeward' but not by definite article {{Lang|it|la}} in {{IPA|[la ˈkaːsa]|lang=it}} {{Lang|it|la casa}} 'the house'), or by any word-final stressed vowel ([{{IPA|parˈlɔ ffranˈtʃeːze}}] {{Lang|it|parlò francese}} 's/he spoke French' but [{{IPA|ˈparlo franˈtʃeːze}}] {{Lang|it|parlo francese}} 'I speak French').

====Latin====
In [[Latin]], consonant length was distinctive, as in {{lang|la|a'''n'''us}} 'old woman' vs. {{lang|la|a'''nn'''us}} 'year'. [[Vowel length]] was also distinctive in Latin until about the fourth century, and was reflected in the orthography with an [[Apex (diacritic)|apex]]. Geminates inherited from Latin still exist in [[Italian language|Italian]], in which {{IPA|[ˈanno]}} {{lang|it|anno}} and {{IPA|[ˈaːno]}} {{lang|it|ano}} contrast with regard to {{IPA|/nn/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} as in Latin. It has been almost completely lost in [[French language|French]] and completely in [[Romanian language|Romanian]]. In [[West Iberian languages]], former Latin geminate consonants often evolved to new phonemes, including some instances of [[nasal vowel]]s in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and Old [[Galician language|Galician]] as well as most cases of {{IPA|/ɲ/}} and {{IPA|/ʎ/}} in Spanish, but phonetic length of both consonants and vowels is no longer distinctive.

====Nepali====
In [[Nepali language|Nepali]], all consonants have geminate counterparts except for {{IPA|/w, j, ɦ/}}. Geminates occur only medially.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Khatiwada|first=Rajesh|date=December 2009|title=Nepali|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|language=en|volume=39|issue=3|pages=373–380|doi=10.1017/S0025100309990181|issn=0025-1003|doi-access=free}}</ref> Examples:

* {{Lang|Ne|समान}} – 'equal' {{IPA|ne|sʌmän|}}; {{Lang|Ne|सम्मान}} {{IPA|ne|sʌmːän|}} – 'honour'
* {{Lang|Ne|सता}} – 'disturb!' {{IPA|ne|sʌt̪ä|}}; {{Lang|Ne|सत्ता}} {{IPA|ne|sʌt̪ːä|}} – 'authority'
* {{Lang|Ne|पका}} – 'cook!' {{IPA|ne|pʌkä|}}; {{Lang|Ne|पक्का}} {{IPA|ne|pʌkːä|}} – 'certain'

====Norwegian====

In [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], gemination is indicated in writing by double consonants. Gemination often differentiates between unrelated words. As in Italian, Norwegian uses short vowels before doubled consonants and long vowels before single consonants. There are qualitative differences between short and long vowels:

*{{lang|no|måte}} {{IPA|no|ˈmôːtə|}} / {{lang|no|måtte}} {{IPA|no|ˈmɔ̂tːə|}} – 'method' / 'must'
*{{lang|no|lete}} {{IPA|no|ˈlêːtə|}} / {{lang|no|lette}} {{IPA|no|ˈlɛ̂tːə|}} – 'to search' / 'to take off'
*{{lang|no|sine}} {{IPA|no|ˈsîːnə|}} / {{lang|no|sinne}} {{IPA|no|ˈsɪ̂nːə|}} – 'theirs' / 'anger'

====Polish====
{{Disputed section|Polish|date=October 2024}}
In [[Polish language|Polish]], consonant length is indicated with two identical letters. Examples:

*{{lang|pl|wanna}} {{IPA|/ˈvanːa/}} – 'bathtub'
*{{lang|pl|[[Anna (given name)|Anna]]}} {{IPA|/ˈanːa/}}
*{{lang|pl|horror}} {{IPA|/ˈxɔrːɔr/}} – 'horror'
*{{lang|pl|hobby}} {{IPA|/ˈxɔbːɨ/}} or {{IPA|/ˈxɔbʲːi/}} – 'hobby'

Consonant length is distinctive and sometimes is necessary to distinguish words:

*{{lang|pl|rodziny}} {{IPA|/rɔˈd͡ʑinɨ/}} – 'families'; {{lang|pl|rodzinny}} {{IPA|/rɔˈd͡ʑinːɨ/}} – 'familial'
*{{lang|pl|saki}} {{IPA|/saki/}} – 'sacks, bags'; {{lang|pl|ssaki}} {{IPA|/sːaki/}} – 'mammals',
*{{lang|pl|leki}} {{IPA|/ˈlɛkʲi/}} – 'medicines'; {{lang|pl|lekki}} {{IPA|/ˈlɛkʲːi/}} – 'light, lightweight'

Double consonants are common on morpheme borders where the initial or final sound of the suffix is the same as the final or initial sound of the stem (depending on the position of the suffix), after [[Polish phonology#Voicing and devoicing|devoicing]]. Examples:

*{{lang|pl|przedtem}} {{IPA|/ˈpʂɛtːɛm/}} – 'before, previously'; from {{lang|pl|przed}} (suffix 'before') + {{lang|pl|tem}} (archaic 'that')
*{{lang|pl|oddać}} {{IPA|/ˈɔdːat͡ɕ/}} – 'give back'; from {{lang|pl|od}} (suffix 'from') + {{lang|pl|dać}} ('give')
*{{lang|pl|bagienny}} {{IPA|/baˈgʲɛnːɨ/}} – 'swampy'; from {{lang|pl|bagno}} ('swamp') + {{lang|pl|ny}} (suffix forming adjectives)
*{{lang|pl|najjaśniejszy}} {{IPA|/najːaɕˈɲɛ̯iʂɨ/}} – 'brightest'; from {{lang|pl|naj}} (suffix forming superlative) + {{lang|pl|jaśniejszy}} ('brighter')

====Punjabi====
[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] is written in two scripts, namely, [[Gurmukhi script|Gurmukhi]] and [[Shahmukhi alphabet|Shahmukhi]]. Both scripts indicate gemination through the uses of diacritics. In Gurmukhi the diacritic is called the '''[[ੱ|{{transliteration|pa|áddak}}]]''' which is written ''before'' the geminated consonant and is mandatory. In contrast, the '''''[[shadda]]''''', which is used to represent gemination in the [[Shahmukhi alphabet|Shahmukhi script]], is not necessarily written, retaining the tradition of the original [[Arabic script]] and [[Persian language]], where diacritics are usually omitted from writing, except to clear ambiguity, and is written ''above'' the geminated consonant. In the cases of [[aspirated consonant]]s in the [[Shahmukhi script]], the '''''[[shadda]]''''' remains on the consonant, not on the [[Shahmukhi alphabet#Consonants|''do-cashmī he'']].

Gemination is specially characteristic of Punjabi compared to other Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi-Urdu, where instead of the presence of consonant lengthening, the preceding vowel tends to be lengthened. Consonant length is distinctive in Punjabi, for example:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="5" |Singleton
! colspan="5" |Geminated
|-
|'''IPA'''
|'''Gurmukhi'''
|'''Shahmukhi'''
|'''Transliteration'''
|'''Meaning'''
|'''IPA'''
|'''Gurmukhi'''
|'''Shahmukhi'''
|'''Transliteration'''
|'''Meaning'''
|-
|{{IPA|/d̪əsᵊ/}}
|{{Lang|pa|ਦਸ}}
|{{Nq|دَس}}
|{{Transliteration|pa|das}}
|'ten'
|{{IPA|/d̪əsːə/}}
|{{Lang|pa|ਦੱਸ}}
|{{Nq|دَسّ}}
|{{Transliteration|pa|dass}}
|'tell' ([[Imperative mood|imperative]])
|-
|{{IPA|/pət̪a/}}
|{{Lang|pa|ਪਤਾ}}
|{{Nq|پَتَہ}}
|{{Transliteration|pa|patā/patah}}<ref name=":0">In [[Gurmukhi]], the final schwa is represented with a '''ਾ''' (ā), whereas in [[Shahmukhi]], the final form of {{Big|{{nq|[[ہ]]}}}} (Gol he) can represent a schwa.</ref>
|'aware of something'
|{{IPA|/pət̪ːa/}}
|{{Lang|pa|ਪੱਤਾ}}
|{{Nq|پَتَّہ}}
|{{Transliteration|pa|pattā/pattah}}<ref name=":0" />
|'leaf'
|-
|{{IPA|/sət̪ᵊ/}}
|{{Lang|pa|ਸਤ}}
|{{Nq|سَت}}
|{{Transliteration|pa|sat}}
|'truth' ([[Liturgy|liturgical]])
|{{IPA|/sət̪ːə/}}
|{{Lang|pa|ਸੱਤ}}
|{{Nq|سَتّ}}
|{{Transliteration|pa|satt}}
|'seven'
|-
|{{IPA|/kəlɑː/}}
|{{Lang|pa|ਕਲਾ}}
|{{Nq|کَلا}}
|{{Transliteration|pa|kalā}}
|'art'
|{{IPA|/kəlːa/}}
|{{Lang|pa|ਕੱਲਾ}}
|{{Nq|کَلّا}}
|{{Transliteration|pa|kallā}}
|'alone'
|}

====Russian====
In [[Russian language|Russian]], consonant length (indicated with two letters, as in {{lang|ru|ва'''нн'''а}} {{IPA|[ˈva'''nn'''ə]}} 'bathtub') may occur in several situations.

[[Minimal pairs]] (or [[chroneme]]s) exist, such as {{wikt-lang|ru|по'''д'''ержать}} {{IPA|[pə'''d'''ʲɪrˈʐatʲ]}} 'to hold' vs {{wikt-lang|ru|по'''дд'''ержать}} {{IPA|[pə'''dʲː'''ɪrˈʐatʲ]}} 'to support', and their conjugations, or {{wikt-lang|ru|дли'''н'''а}} {{IPA|[dlʲɪˈ'''n'''a]}} 'length' vs {{wikt-lang|ru|дли'''нн'''а}} {{IPA|[dlʲɪˈ'''nː'''a]}} 'long' adj. f.

*[[Word formation]] or [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]: {{lang|ru|дли'''н'''а}} ({{IPA|[dlʲɪˈ'''n'''a]}} 'length') > {{lang|ru|дли'''нн'''ый}} ({{IPA|[ˈdlʲi'''nn'''ɨj]}} 'long') This occurs when two adjacent morphemes have the same consonant and is comparable to the situation of Polish described above.
*[[Assimilation (linguistics)|Assimilation]]. The spelling usually reflects the unassimilated consonants, but they are pronounced as a single long consonant.
**{{lang|ru|вы'''сш'''ий}} ({{IPA|[ˈvɨ'''ʂː'''ɨj]}} 'highest').<ref>{{Cite book
|last=Savko
|first=I. E.
|script-title=ru:Весь школьный курс русского языка
|url=http://www.pshelp.narod.ru/lib/applicant/0002.html
|access-date=2009-02-13
|year=2007
|publisher=Sovremennyy literator
|language=ru
|isbn= 978-5-17-035009-4
|page=768
|chapter=10.3. Произношение сочетаний согласных
|chapter-url=http://www.pshelp.narod.ru/lib/applicant/0002-014.html
}}
</ref>

====Spanish====
There are phonetic geminate consonants in Caribbean Spanish due to the assimilation of /l/ and /ɾ/ in syllabic coda to the following consonant.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Arias|first=Álvaro|date=2019|title=Fonética y fonología de las consonantes geminadas en el español de Cuba|url=https://revistas.usc.gal/index.php/moenia/article/view/6474/9974|journal=Moenia}} 25, 465-497</ref> Examples of Cuban Spanish:

{|
|+
|-
|/l/ or /r/ + /f/ ||   → ||[ff]|| a[ff]iler, hue[ff]ano || (Sp. {{Lang|es|alfiler}}, {{Lang|es|huérfano}})
|-
|/l/ or /r/ + /h/||    → ||[ɦh]|| ana[ɦh]ésico, vi[ɦh]en|| (Sp. {{Lang|es|analgésico}}, {{Lang|es|virgen}})
|-
|/l/ or /r/ + /b/||    → || [bb] || si[bb]a, cu[bb]a|| (Sp. {{Lang|es|silba}} or {{Lang|es|sirva}}, {{Lang|es|curva}})
|-
|/l/ or /r/ + /d/||    → || [dd]|| ce[dd]a, acue[dd]o|| (Sp. {{Lang|es|celda}} or {{Lang|es|cerda}}, {{Lang|es|acuerdo}})
|-
|/l/ or /r/ + /g/||    → || [gg]|| pu[gg]a, la[gg]a|| (Sp. {{Lang|es|pulga}} or {{Lang|es|purga}}, {{Lang|es|larga}})
|-
|/l/ or /r/ + /m/||    → || [mm]|| ca[mm]a, a[mm]a|| (Sp. {{Lang|es|calma}}, {{Lang|es|alma}} or {{Lang|es|arma}})
|-
|/l/ or /r/ + /n/||    → || [nn]|| pie[nn]a, ba[nn]eario|| (Sp. {{Lang|es|pierna}}, {{Lang|es|balneario}})
|-
|/l/ or /r/ + /l/||    → || [ll]|| bu[ll]a, cha[ll]a|| (Sp. {{Lang|es|burla}}, {{Lang|es|charla}})
|}

===Luganda===
[[Luganda]] (a [[Bantu language]]) is unusual in that gemination can occur word-initially, as well as word-medially. For example, {{lang|lg|kkapa}} {{IPA|/kːapa/}} 'cat', {{IPA|/ɟːaɟːa/}} {{lang|lg|jjajja}} 'grandfather' and {{IPA|/ɲːabo/}} {{lang|lg|nnyabo}} 'madam' all begin with geminate consonants.

There are three consonants that cannot be geminated: {{IPA|/j/}}, {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/l/}}. Whenever [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] rules would geminate these consonants, {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}} are prefixed with {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, and {{IPA|/l/}} changes to {{IPA|/d/}}. For example:
* {{lang|lg|-ye}} {{IPA|/je/}} 'army' (root) > {{lang|lg|ggye}} {{IPA|/ɟːe/}} 'an army' (noun)
* {{lang|lg|-yinja}} {{IPA|/jiːɲɟa/}} 'stone' (root) > {{lang|lg|jjinja}} {{IPA|/ɟːiːɲɟa/}} 'a stone' (noun); {{lang|lg|jj}} is usually spelt {{lang|lg|ggy}}
* {{lang|lg|-wanga}} {{IPA|/waːŋɡa/}} 'nation' (root) > {{lang|lg|ggwanga}} {{IPA|/ɡːwaːŋɡa/}} 'a nation' (noun)
* {{lang|lg|-lagala}} {{IPA|/laɡala/}} 'medicine' (root) > {{lang|lg|ddagala}} {{IPA|/dːaɡala/}} 'medicine' (noun)

===Japanese===
{{See also|Japanese phonology#Gemination}}
In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], consonant length is distinctive (as is vowel length). Gemination in the [[syllabary]] is represented with the [[sokuon]], a small {{Lang|ja-latn|tsu}}:<ref name="Asano1994">{{Cite journal|title=Mora-Based Temporal Adjustments in Japanese|journal=Colorado Research in Linguistics|url=https://journals.colorado.edu/index.php/cril/article/view/195/175|last=Asano|first=Yoshiteru|volume=13|publisher=University of Colorado Boulder|doi=10.25810/2ddh-9161|year=1994|at=p2 line 29|language=en|format=en|doi-access=free}}</ref> {{Lang|ja|っ}} for [[hiragana]] in native words and {{Lang|ja|ッ}} for [[katakana]] in foreign words. For example, {{Lang|ja|来た}} ({{Lang|ja|きた}}, {{Lang|ja-latn|kita}}) means 'came; arrived', while {{Lang|ja|切った}} ({{Lang|ja|きった}}, {{Lang|ja-latn|kitta}}) means 'cut; sliced'. With the influx of ''[[gairaigo]]'' ('foreign words') into Modern Japanese, [[voiced consonants]] have become able to geminate as well:<ref>{{citation|last=Kawahara|first=Shigeto|title=A Faithfulness ranking projected from a perceptibility scale: The case of [+ Voice] in Japanese|journal=Language|publisher=Linguistic Society of America|volume=82|issue=3|pages=536–574|year=2006|url=http://user.keio.ac.jp/~kawahara/pdf/Lang82.3kawahara.pdf|doi=10.1353/lan.2006.0146<!--|doi-access=subscription-->|s2cid=145093954|author-link=Shigeto Kawahara}}, p. 538</ref> {{Lang|ja|バグ}} ({{Lang|ja-latn|bagu}}) means '(computer) bug', and {{Lang|ja|バッグ}} ({{Lang|ja-latn|baggu}}) means 'bag'. Distinction between [[voiceless]] gemination and [[voiced]] gemination is visible in pairs of words such as {{Lang|ja|キット}} ({{Lang|ja-latn|kitto}}, meaning 'kit') and {{Lang|ja|キッド}} ({{Lang|ja-latn|kiddo}}, meaning 'kid'). In addition, in some variants of colloquial Modern Japanese, gemination may be applied to some adjectives and adverbs (regardless of voicing) in order to add emphasis: {{Lang|ja|すごい}} ({{Lang|ja-latn|sugoi}}, 'amazing') contrasts with {{Lang|ja|すっごい}} ({{Lang|ja-latn|suggoi}}, '<nowiki/>''really'' amazing'); {{Lang|ja|思い切り}} ({{Lang|ja|おもいきり}}, {{Lang|ja-latn|omoikiri}}, 'with all one's strength') contrasts with {{Lang|ja|思いっ切り}} ({{Lang|ja|おもいっきり}}, {{Lang|ja-latn|omoikkiri}}, '''really'' with all one's strength').

===Turkic languages===
====Turkish====
In [[Turkish language|Turkish]] gemination is indicated by two identical letters as in most languages that have phonemic gemination.

* {{lang|tr|anne}} {{IPA|[annɛ]}} "mother"
* {{lang|tr|hürriyet}} {{IPA|[çyɹ̝ːije̝t]}} "freedom"<ref>Relatively archaic, its synonym ''özgürlük'' is more  often used.</ref>

Loanwords originally ending with a phonemic geminated [[consonant]] are always written and pronounced without the ending gemination as in Arabic.

* {{lang|tr|hac}} {{IPA|[hadʒ]}} ([[hajj]]) (from Arabic {{lang|ar|حج|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/ħadʒː/}} pronounced {{IPA|[ħadʒ]}})
* {{lang|tr|hat}} {{IPA|[hat]}} ([[Islamic calligraphy]]) (from Arabic {{lang|ar|خط|rtl=yes}} {{IPA|/xatˤː/}} pronounced {{IPA|[xatˤ]}})

Although gemination is resurrected when the word takes a suffix.

* {{lang|tr|hac}} becomes {{lang|tr|hacca}} {{IPA|[haˈdʒːa]}} ('to hajj') when it takes the suffix "-a" ('to', indicating destination)
* {{lang|tr|hat}} becomes {{lang|tr|hattın}} {{IPA|[haˈtːɯn]}} ('of calligraphy') when it takes the suffix "-ın" ('of', expressing possession)

Gemination also occurs when a [[suffix]] starting with a consonant comes after a word that ends with the same consonant.

* {{lang|tr|el}} {{IPA|[el]}} ('hand') + {{lang|tr|-ler}} {{IPA|[læɾ̥]}} ("-s", marks [[plural]]) = {{lang|tr|eller}} {{IPA|[eˈlːæɾ̥]}} ('hands'). (contrasts with {{lang|tr|eler}}, 's/he eliminates')
* {{lang|tr|at}} {{IPA|[at]}} ('to throw') + {{lang|tr|-tık}} {{IPA|[tɯk]}} ("-ed", marks [[past tense]], [[Grammatical person|first person plural]]) = {{lang|tr|attık}} {{IPA|[aˈtːɯk]}} ('we threw [smth.]'). (contrasts with {{lang|tr|atık}}, 'waste')

===Dravidian languages===
====Malayalam====
In [[Malayalam]], compounding is phonologically conditioned<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Interplay of Morphology and Phonology |last=Inkelas |first=Sharon |series=Oxford Surveys in Syntax & Morphology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-928047-6 |page=10}}</ref> called as [[sandhi]] and gemination occurs at word boundaries. Gemination sandhi is called ''dvitva sandhi'' or 'doubling sandhi'.

Consider following example:

* {{lang|ml|മേശ}} + {{lang|ml|പെട്ടി}} ({{transliteration|ml|mēśa}} + {{transliteration|ml|peṭṭi}}) – {{lang|ml|മേശപ്പെട്ടി}} ({{transliteration|ml|mēśappeṭṭi}})

Gemination also occurs in a single morpheme like {{lang|ml|കള്ളം}} ({{transliteration|ml|kaḷḷaṁ}}) which has a different meaning from {{lang|ml|കളം}} ({{transliteration|ml|kaḷaṁ}}).

===Uralic languages===
====Sámi languages====
Many [[Sámi languages]] have gemination as a phonetic feature. The [[Proto-Sami language]] had as many as four different lengths, although there is only one living language where this is attested: certains dialect of [[Ume Sámi]]. Most varieties have merged them to two or three contrastive degrees of length.

====Estonian====
[[Estonian language|Estonian]] has three phonemic lengths; however, the third length is a [[suprasegmental]] feature, which is as much tonal patterning as a length distinction. It is traceable to [[allophony]] caused by now-deleted suffixes, for example half-long {{lang|et|linna}} < *{{lang|et|linnan}} 'of the city' vs. overlong {{lang|et|linna}} < *{{lang|et|linnaan}} < *{{lang|et|linnahen}} 'to the city'.

====Finnish====
{{See also|Finnish phonology}}

Consonant length is phonemic in [[Finnish language|Finnish]], for example {{lang|fi|takka}} {{IPA|fi|ˈtɑkːɑ|}} ('fireplace', transcribed with the length sign {{IPA|[ː]}} or with a doubled letter {{IPA|[ˈtɑkkɑ]}}) and {{lang|fi|taka}} {{IPA|[ˈtɑkɑ]}} ('back'). Consonant gemination occurs with simple consonants ({{lang|fi|hakaa}} : {{lang|fi|hakkaa}}) and between syllables in the pattern (consonant)-vowel-sonorant-stop-stop-vowel ({{lang|fi|palkka}}) but not generally in codas or with longer syllables. (This occurs in [[Sami languages]] and in the Finnish name {{lang|fi|Jouhkki}}, which is of Sami origin.) [[Sandhi]] often produces geminates.

Both consonant and vowel gemination are phonemic, and both occur independently, e.g. {{lang|fi|Mali}}, {{lang|fi|maali}}, {{lang|fi|malli}}, {{lang|fi|maallinen}} (Karelian surname, 'paint', 'model', and 'secular').

In Standard Finnish, consonant gemination of {{IPA|[h]}} exists only in [[interjection]]s, new loan words and in the playful word [[wikt:hihhuli|''hihhuli'']], with its origins in the 19th century, and derivatives of that word.

In many Finnish dialects there are also the following types of special gemination in connection with long vowels: the southwestern special gemination ({{Lang|fi|lounaismurteiden erikoisgeminaatio}}), with lengthening of stops + shortening of long vowel, of the type {{lang|fi|leipää}} < {{lang|fi|leippä}}; the common gemination ({{Lang|fi|yleisgeminaatio}}), with lengthening of all consonants in short, stressed syllables, of the type {{lang|fi|putoaa}} > {{lang|fi|puttoo}} and its extension (which is strongest in the northwestern Savonian dialects); the eastern dialectal special gemination ({{Lang|fi|itämurteiden erikoisgeminaatio}}), which is the same as the common gemination but also applies to unstressed syllables and certain clusters, of the types {{lang|fi|lehmiä}} > {{lang|fi|lehmmii}} and {{lang|fi|maksetaan}} > {{lang|fi|maksettaan}}.

===Wagiman===
In [[Wagiman language|Wagiman]], an [[Indigenous Australian languages|indigenous Australian language]], consonant length in stops is the primary phonetic feature that differentiates [[fortis and lenis]] stops. Wagiman does not have phonetic voice. Word-initial and word-final stops never contrast for length.