Editing German name (section)

==Surnames==
{{anchor|Nachname}}
[[Surname]]s (''family name''; ''Nachname'', ''Familienname'') were gradually introduced in [[German-speaking Europe]] during the [[Late Middle Ages]]. Many of such surnames are derived from [[nickname]]s. They are generally classified into four groups by [[Family name etymology|derivation]]: 
given names, occupational designations, bodily attributes, and toponyms (including references to named buildings). Also, many family names display characteristic features of the [[German dialects|dialect]] of the region they originated in.

* '''Given names''' often turned into family names when people were identified [[Patronymic|by their father's name]]. For example, the first name ''[[Ahrend]]'' developed into the family name ''Ahrends'' by adding a genitive s-ending, as in ''Ahrend's son''. <br /> Examples: ''[[Ahrends (disambiguation)|Ahrends]]/[[Ahrens (disambiguation)|Ahrens]]'', ''[[Burchard (name)|Burkhard]]'', ''[[Wulff (disambiguation)|Wulff]]'', ''[[Friedrich (surname)|Friedrich]]'', ''[[Benz (disambiguation)|Benz]]'', ''[[Fritz (disambiguation)|Fritz]]''. With many of the early city records written in [[Latin]], occasionally the Latin genitive singular -i was used such as in ''Jakobi'' or ''Alberti'' or (written as -'y') in [[Mendelssohn Bartholdy]].
* '''Occupational names''' are the most common form of family names; anybody who had an unusual job would have been bound to be identified by it. Examples: ''[[Gaschler (surname)|Gaschler]]'' ([[glass (glass blower)|glass]]), ''[[Schmidt (surname)|Schmidt]]'' ([[Smith (metalwork)|smith]]), ''[[Müller (surname)|Müller]]'' ([[miller]]), ''[[Meier (surname)|Meier]]'' ([[farm]] administrator; akin to tenant, steward, sometimes also a bailiff), ''[[Schulz]]e'' ([[constable]]), ''[[Fischer]]'' ([[fisherman]]), ''[[Schneider (surname)|Schneider]]'' ([[tailor]]), ''[[Maurer (disambiguation)|Maurer]]'' (mason), ''[[Bauer (surname)|Bauer]]'' ([[farmer]]), ''[[Zimmermann (surname)|Zimmermann]]'' ([[carpenter]]), [[Metzger]] or [[Fleischer]] (butcher), [[Töpfer]], [[Toepfer]] (potter) or [[Klingemann (surname)|Klingemann]] (weapons smith). Also, names referring to nobility such as ''[[Kaiser]]'' (emperor), ''[[König (disambiguation)|König]]'' (king), ''[[Graf]]'' (count) are common, with the name bearers probably only a minor functionary of a monarch.
* '''Bodily attribute names''' are family names such as ''[[Krause]]'' (curly), ''[[Schwarzkopf (disambiguation)|Schwarzkopf]]'' (black head), ''[[Klein (surname)|Klein]]'' (small), [[Groß]] (big).
* '''Geographical names (toponyms)''' are derived from the name of a city or village, or the location of someone's home. They often have the '-er' postfix that signifies origin (as in English ''New Yorker''). Examples: ''Kissinger'' (from [[Kissingen]]), ''[[Schwarzenegger (surname)|Schwarzenegger]]'' (from [[Schwarzenegg]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&geocode=&q=Schwarzenegg&sll=37.0625,-95.677068&sspn=36.863178,61.787109&ie=UTF8&ll=46.795667,7.715535&spn=0.007786,0.015085&t=h&z=16&iwloc=addr |title=Schwarzenegg |publisher=Google Maps |access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref> or [[Schwarzeneck]]), ''[[Bayer]]'' (from [[Bavaria]], German ''Bayern''). Böhm indicates that a family originated in [[Bohemia]]. A special case of geographical names were those derived from a building or a natural landmark, e.g. a ''[[Busch (disambiguation)|Busch]]'' (bush) or ''[[Springborn (surname)|Springborn]]'' (spring/well). Before the advent of street names and numbers, even for long times afterwards, many important buildings like inns, mills and farmsteads were given house names or ''[[Hofname]]n'' "estate names", e.g. ''[[Rothschild]]'' "red sign/escutcheon", ''[[Der Lachs zu Danzig|Lachs]]'' "(sign of the) salmon", ''Bär'' "bear", ''[[Engels]]'' from ''Engel'' "angel", etc.  <!--Such a place was often better known than the people living in it; the people would get their surname from the building. --> A house or estate name could be combined with a profession, e.g.  ''Rosenbauer'' (rose-farmer, from a farmstead called 'the rose'); ''Kindlmüller'' (child's miller, from a mill named 'the Christmas child', 'the prodigal child' or 'the king's child').  
The preposition ''[[von]]'' ("of") was used to distinguish [[nobility]]; for example, if someone was baron of the village of Veltheim, his family name would be ''von Veltheim''. In modern times, people who were elevated to nobility often had a 'von' added to their name. For example, [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Johann Wolfgang Goethe]] had his name changed to ''Johann Wolfgang von Goethe''. This practice ended with the abolition of the monarchy in Germany and Austria in 1919. Sometimes ''von'' is also used in geographical names that are not noble, as in ''von Däniken''.

With family names originating locally, many names display particular characteristics of the local dialects, such as the south German, Austrian and Swiss [[diminutive]] endings ''-l'' ''-el'', ''-erl'', ''-le'' or ''-li'' as in ''Kleibl'', ''[[Schäuble]]'' or ''Nägeli'' (from 'Nagel', nail). The same is true for regional variants in the naming of professions. While a barrel-maker from [[Hamburg]] may have been called "Böttcher", a [[Bavaria]]n could easily have been called "Schäffler".

The [[Jewish surname|surnames]] of the [[German Jews]] are a special case, as they were introduced later, in the late 18th to early 19th century, per ''fiat''.<ref>1787 in the Duchy of Austria, in Prussia beginning 1790, 1813 in Bavaria, 1828 in Württemberg, 1834 in Saxony, see [[Jewish surname]].</ref> The Prussian authorities imposed made-up and sometimes derogatory names. For instance, the name "Waldlieferant" (lit.: forest supplier) was "created" to ridicule a Jewish timber trader.{{Citation needed|date=January 2016}} Even way more offensive expressions ("Afterduft"; lit.: anus odour) were in use.{{Citation needed|date=January 2016}} This is by no means the rule, though; on the contrary, those surnames most quickly recognized as probably Jewish in origin are distinctly poetical ones, probably as they were made-up choices by the people themselves (e.g. ''[[Rosenzweig]]'').

Immigration, often sponsored by local authorities, also brought foreign family names into the German-speaking regions. Depending on regional history, geography and economics, many family names have [[French language|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] or [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] (e.g. [[Polish language|Polish]]) origins. Sometimes they survived in their original form; in other cases, the spelling would be adapted to German (the [[Slavic language|Slavic]] ending ''ic'' becoming the German {{lang|de|-itz}} or {{lang|de|-itsch}} or [[Baltic language|Baltic]] "-kis" becoming "-ke"). Over time, the spelling often changed to reflect native German pronunciation (''Sloothaak'' for the Dutch ''Sloothaag''); but some names, such as those of French [[Huguenots]] settling in [[Prussia]], retained their spelling but with the pronunciation that would come naturally to a German reading the name: ''[[Marquard (disambiguation)|Marquard]]'', pronounced {{IPA|fr|maʁkaʁ}} in French, ended up being pronounced {{IPA|de|ˈmaʁkvaʁt}} much like the German ''Markwart'' from which it was originally derived.

===Marriage===
Traditionally, the wife adopts her husband's ''Nachname'' on marriage and drops her own. However, due to the legal equality of sexes, the opposite is possible as well, though rare.

A few examples of the practice under German law, if "Herr (Mr) Schmidt" and "Frau (Miss) Meyer" marry:<ref>[http://www.familienrecht-ratgeber.de/familienrecht/eherecht/content_02_01.html Das Namensrecht – Doppelname, Geburtsname, Familienname]. Familienrecht-ratgeber.de. Retrieved on 2011-11-01.</ref>

# They can keep their former ''Nachnamen'': Herr Schmidt and Frau (Mrs) Meyer. In the 1990s, the law was thus changed. They can later change to variant 2, though the inverse is not possible.
# They can declare one name as a "marriage name" (''Ehename''). In doing so, they can either both adopt the husband's name, or both adopt the wife's name as an ''Ehename'': Herr Meyer and Frau Meyer; Herr Schmidt and Frau Schmidt.
# One partner, but not both, may combine both names by a hyphen. Thus, one of them then bears a double name (''Doppelname''). (Herr Schmidt and Frau Meyer-Schmidt (or Frau Schmidt-Meyer); the children have to be called Schmidt.)  Both partners cannot have ''Doppelnamen''; thus, there would be no Herr Meyer-Schmidt ''and'' Frau Meyer-Schmidt.

All children of a family have to receive the same non-hyphenated ''Nachname'' at birth, which may be either the mother's or the father's ''Nachname'' (traditionally it was the father's). If the parents adopted an ''Ehename'' this is the ''Nachname'' of the child. It is strictly forbidden to give children ''Doppelnamen'' if it is not the ''Ehename''.<ref>[http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/pressemitteilungen/bvg10-02.html Das Bundesverfassungsgericht] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513015452/http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/pressemitteilungen/bvg10-02.html |date=2008-05-13 }}. Bundesverfassungsgericht.de. Retrieved on 2011-11-01.</ref> The latter case can arise with traditional aristocratic ''Doppelnamen'' (e.g. Faber-Castell).

In [[Austria]] (§ 93 ABGB), a couple can choose either of their surnames as married name. In the default case, each partner retains their unmarried name. The partner who is changing surnames has the possibility to use their unmarried name alongside the married name with hyphenation.

In [[Switzerland]] (Art. 160 ZGB), the couple can opt to both retain their unmarried name, or the couple can choose to use either surname as their married name. If both retain their name, they need to declare which will be the surname of any future children.

===Nobility===
Titles of former aristocrats (like ''Graf'' for "Count") have become parts of the ''Nachname'' in Germany, giving longer names of several words, usually including the [[nobiliary particle]] ''[[von]]'' (meaning "of") or ''zu'' (meaning "to", sometimes "at"), often ''von und zu'' are also found together (meaning "of and to/at").<ref name="NM-KTG">For example: [[Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg|Karl-Theodor Maria Nikolaus Johann Jacob Philipp Franz Joseph Sylvester Freiherr von und zu Guttenberg]]</ref><ref name="NM-WKG">[[German nobility#Nobiliary particles used by German nobility|Nobiliary particles used by German nobility]]</ref> The legal rules for these names are the same as those for other ''Nachnamen'', which gives rise to a number of cases where people legally bear such names but are not recognized by the associations of formerly [[German nobility|noble families in Germany]], which continue to apply the old rules of the German Empire in their publications. Most of these cases come about when a woman of noble descent marries a man with no title, and the two adopt the woman's name as their common ''Nachname'', which was impossible under imperial law.

In Austria, titles of nobility including certain other orders and honours held by Austrian citizens have since 3 April 1919 been abolished, including nobiliary particles such as ''von'', the use of such titles by Austrian citizens is an offence punishable with a financial enforcement penalty.<ref name="GN-NRA">[[:de:Adelsaufhebungsgesetz#Verwaltungsstrafbarkeit|Adelsaufhebungsgesetz, Verwaltungsstrafbarkeit (Nobility Repeal Act, Administrative Offense).]]</ref>{{Better source needed|date=February 2017|reason=[[WP:CIRCULAR]]}} For example, [[Otto von Habsburg]], [[Austria-Hungary]]'s last crown prince, was referred to as Otto Habsburg(-Lothringen) in Austria. In Switzerland, where titles of nobility have been rare for several centuries, they can be used in private conversation, but are not officially recognized.{{Citation needed|date=October 2007}}

=== Common surnames ===
==== Germany ====
{{multiple image
| footer    =  
| align     =

| image1    = Verteilung Nachname Bachhuber DE.png
| width1    = 100
| alt1      = 
| caption1  = Distribution of the surname ''Bachhuber'' (lit. "peasant of an estate near a stream") in Germany (2005). Its Bavarian origin remains clearly visible.
| link1     =

| image2    = Verteilung Nachname Hoffmann DE.png
| width2    = 100
| alt2      = 
| caption2  =  Distribution of the surname ''Hoffmann'' in Germany (2005). As a generic occupational name ("a tenant or courtier"), the name could originate independently all over Germany, although its concentration is most pronounced in Central Germany.
| link2     =

}}
The most common surnames in [[Germany]], counting different spellings together, are roughly:<ref name="ns">[http://www.name-statistics.org/de/numedefamiliecomune.php Die häufigsten Nachnamen in Deutschland]</ref>
# 0,87 %: [[Schmidt (surname)|Schmidt]], Schmitt, Schmitz, [[Schmied]] ("smith, blacksmith")
# 0,83 %: [[Müller (surname)|Müller]], Möller ("miller")
# 0,73 %: [[Meyer (surname)|Meyer]], Meier, Meir, Meyr, Mayer, Maier, Mair, or Mayr (often the senior farmer in a given settlement [running a "full range" farmstead in terms of area, workforce and harvest, compared to various partitions of lesser size], often as the leaseholder of a landlord like an abbey, a worldly ruler, etc.; "tenant, steward, sometimes also a bailiff, but ''not'' a mayor"<ref>[//wiki-de.genealogy.net/Meyer_%28Familienname%29]</ref>{{unreliable source?|failed=y|date=May 2014}})
# 0,43 %: [[Schulz]], Schulze, Schultze, Schulte, Schultheiß, [[Scholz (surname)|Scholz]] ("constable")
# 0,34 %: [[Schneider (surname)|Schneider]] ("tailor")
# 0,30 %: [[Hoffmann]], Hofmann ("steward; tenant/leaseholder; courtier"; with the same meaning, but here not counted, are Hofer, Hoffer, Hoffner, Höfer, Höffer, Höffner, etc)
# 0,28 %: [[Becker (surname)|Becker]], Beck, Beckmann, Bäcker ("baker")
# 0,27 %: [[Fischer]] ("fisherman")
# 0,26 %: [[Weber (surname)|Weber]] ("weaver")
# 0,23 %: [[Wagner (surname)|Wagner]] ("carter, cartwright")
# 0,21 %: Bauer, Baur ("farmer")
# 0,1925 %: Lange, Lang ("long, tall")
# 0,1918 %: Wolf, Wolff ("wolf")

If different spellings are counted separately, the order is different:<ref name="ns"/>
# [[Müller (surname)|Müller]]
# [[Schmidt (surname)|Schmidt]]
# [[Schneider (surname)|Schneider]]
# [[Fischer]]
# [[Weber (surname)|Weber]]
# [[Meyer (surname)|Meyer]]
# [[Wagner (surname)|Wagner]]
# [[Schulz]]
# [[Bauer (surname)|Bauer]]
# [[Becker (surname)|Becker]]

These ten names are all occupational names, designating common occupations around 1600 when surnames became heritable. That's why these names arose independently across Germany.

==== Austria ====
#[[Gruber (disambiguation)#People|Gruber]] (5482)
#[[Huber]] (5109)
#[[Wagner (surname)|Wagner]] (4624)
#Mueller (4410)
#[[Pichler]] (4227)
#[[Steiner (surname)|Steiner]] (4176)
#[[Moser (surname)|Moser]] (4175)
#Mayer (3901)
#[[Bauer (surname)|Bauer]] (3840)
#[[Berger]] (3642)
#[[Hofer (disambiguation)#People|Hofer]] (3549)
#[[Fuchs (surname)|Fuchs]] (3251)
#[[Eder (surname)|Eder]] (3232)
#[[Leitner]] (3223)
<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.telefonabc.at/haeufigste-nachnamen.aspx | title=Die 50 häufigsten Nachnamen in Österreich }}</ref>

===Gender-specific surname variants===
Traditionally, there was a differentiation of surnames of women from those of their male siblings, which was widespread in Germany until the 18th century. Thus, in old records, especially [[church register]]s on [[rites de passage]], such as baptisms, deaths and marriages etc., women may appear bearing regionally typical female surname variants (like, in South Germany: Peter Huber, but Anna Huberin). With the establishment of general official registration of [[legal name]]s, this practice was abolished in the 18th and the 19th centuries, depending on the legislation of the [[States of the Holy Roman Empire|respective states]].

Also, the spelling of given and surnames, varying previously from author to author, or even entry to entry, was then mostly fixed according to the official recorded form. Former noble titles appearing in male and female variants were transformed by the Weimar Constitution, article 109, into parts of the surnames in Germany, but a new tradition of gender-specific variants, for official registration, was established for these surnames. This practice was confirmed in a judgement by the [[Reichsgericht]] on 10 March 1926.<ref>Cf {{Lang|de|[[Reichsgesetzblatt]]}} (Reich Law Gazette), No. 113 (1926), pp.&nbsp;107seqq.</ref><ref>Cf. also Sebastian-Johannes von Spoenla-Metternich, ''Namenserwerb, Namensführung und Namensänderung unter Berücksichtigung von Namensbestandteilen'', Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, Europäischer Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1997, (=simultaneously: Wilhelmshaven, Fachhochsch., Diploma thesis), p.&nbsp;137. {{ISBN|3-631-31779-4}}</ref><ref>In a suit on a legal name change after a [[sex reassignment therapy]] the [[Bayerisches Oberstes Landesgericht]] (Bavarian Supreme Court) decided on 2 October 2002 that the register office ([[Standesamt]]) has to issue a birth certificate for a person of reassigned gender giving the gender-specific form of the variable surname part (deriving from the former title) according to the gender, which is now assigned to the person. Cf. [http://www.ra-kotz.de/geschlechtsumwandlung.htm ''Bayerisches Oberstes Landesgericht, Aktenzeichen: 1Z BR 98/02, Beschluß vom 2. Oktober 2002'']</ref>

Colloquially, surname variants for women continue to appear in some German dialects. In [[Bavarian language|Bavarian dialect]] surnames of women sometimes are formed by adding the ending "-in", used in standard High German to indicate noun variants for women or items of grammatical feminine gender, such as Näher'''in''' (seamstr'''ess'''), with Näher (seamster) being the male form. Thus a Frau (Mrs.) Gruber may be referred to as "Gruber'''in'''". In [[West Low German]] parlance the ending "…sch(e)" is sometimes added to surnames of women, related to the standard High German adjective ending "…isch" (cognitive to English "[[wiktionary:-ish|…ish]]"), [[suffix]]ed to nouns or adjectives indicating belonging / pertaining to, being of the kind described by the suffixed word: for example, ''de Smidtsche'', is Ms Schmidt (Smith), but literally something like ''the Smithian'' (the woman pertaining to a man/family named Schmidt).<ref>This usage of the possessive suffix "-isch(e)" then also caused its more general perception as feminine ending for professions, such as in "de Kööksch" (literally the "cookee"). Cf. Hein Timm, ''Wörterbuch Hochdeutsch-Plattdeutsch'', Hamburg: Ernst Kabel, 1980, p.&nbsp;54. {{ISBN|3-921909-35-X}}.</ref>

Another form, indicating a female bearer of a surname, was the addition of a genitive "s" (like the [[Saxon genitive]]), the daughter or wife of Mr. Bäcker (literally Baker) would appear as Ms Bäckers (in German without an apostrophe), as being Bäcker's daughter or wife.