Editing Gudrun (section)

==Continental Germanic traditions and attestations==
===''Nibelungenlied''===
[[File:Kriemhilds Traum vom Falken Am Fussende des Bettes steht Kriemhilds Mutter Ute Hundeshagenscher Kodex.jpeg|thumb|Kriemhild tells her mother Ute of a dream that predicts her tragic love for Siegfried. Hundeshagenscher Kodex]]
[[File:Siegfrieds Leiche vor Kriemhilds Tuer Hundeshagenscher Kodex.jpeg|thumb|Kriemhild finds Siegfried's corpse in front of her bedroom door. Hundeshagenscher Kodex]]
[[File:Kriemhilds letzter Wortwechsel mit Hagen Handschriftenabteilung Hundeshagenscher Kodex.jpeg|thumb|Kriemhild, holding Gunther's head, prepares to kill Hagen with Siegfried's sword while Hildebrand watches. Hundeshagenscher Kodex]]
Kriemhild is the main character of the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'' (c. 1200): she is the first character to be introduced and the romance ends with her death.{{sfn|Heinzle|2013|p=1038}} The poem is even called "Kriemhild" in at least one manuscript.{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=91|ps=, "Ditz Puech heysset Chrimhilt." Ambraser Heldenbuch.}} It has even been argued that the epic represents a sort of ''[[Bildungsroman]]'' for Kriemhild, as she develops from a relatively mild-manner courtly lady into a forceful and ferocious avenger of her dead husband.{{sfn|Haymes|Samples|1996|p=152}} Various versions of the text judge her actions differently; in the A and B versions, she is condemned as a ''vâlendinne'' (fiend) for her bloody revenge,{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=53}} but the C version emphasizes her love for her dead husband as her motivation and absolves her of most blame.{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=56}}

In the ''Nibelungenlied'', Kriemhild is the daughter of king Dancrat and queen Ute of Burgundy, a kingdom centered around [[Worms, Germany|Worms]]. Her brothers are Gunther, Gernot, and Giselher, with Gunther being the king. The poem opens when Kriemhild has a dream that she raised a falcon only to see it killed by two eagles. Her mother explains to her that this means she will love a man very much, but he will be killed. One day, Siegfried comes to the Burgundian court, intending to woo Kriemhild. The two do not speak for a year, but once Siegfried has helped the Burgundians in a war the two are allowed to see each other for the first time. They fall deeply in love and see each other daily. Once Siegfried has helped Kriemhild's brother king Gunther acquire [[Brunhild]] as his bride, Kriemhild and Siegfried are also married. The couple then leaves from Siegfried's own kingdom at Xanten.{{sfn|Millet|2008|pp=181–182}}

Some years pass, and Kriemhild and Siegfried have a son whom they name Gunther. One day, Brunhild, who had been convinced that Siegfried was Gunther's vassal rather than an equal king, convinces Gunther to invite his sister and Siegfried to stay with them at Worms. Initially, Brunhild and Kriemhild get along, but in the private while they are watching a tournament, they soon argue over which of them has the highest ranking husband. Brunhild accuses Kriemhild of being married to a vassal. The queens part in anger.{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=40}} Later, the two queens encounter each other before entering the cathedral at Worms for mass. Brunhild and Kriemhild each insist that they should be allowed to enter the church before the other. Brunhild repeats her accusation that Kriemhild is married to a vassal publicly. Kriemhild then declares that Siegfried, and not Gunther, has taken Brunhild's virginity, displaying Brunhild apparent proof. Kriemhild then enters the church before Brunhild.{{sfn|Millet|2008|pp=182-183}}

Siegfried is forced to publicly deny the accusation to Gunther, and beats Kriemhild to punish her. Brunhild is not satisfied, however, and Hagen convinces Gunther to have Siegfried murdered. Under the pretext that he wants to protect Siegfried, Hagen convinces Kriemhild to reveal the only spot where impenetrable Siegfried may be wounded. Once Siegfried is murdered while hunting with Hagen and Gunther, his body is thrown in front of Kriemhild's bedroom door. Kriemhild quickly realizes that Siegfried was murdered by Gunther and Hagen. Kriemhild sees to Siegfried's burial and refuses to return to Xanten with Siegfried's father, instead remaining in Worms near her family and Siegfried's tomb. Eventually, Gunther and his brothers are able to reconcile with Kriemhild, but she refuses to forgive Hagen. Kriemhild has the hoard of the Nibelungen, which she has inherited after Siegfried's death, brought to Worms. She uses the hoard to acquire warriors; Hagen, realizing that she is dangerous, conspires to steal the hoard and sink it in the Rhine.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=183}}{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=42}}

Thirteen years later, king [[Attila|Etzel]] of the Huns seeks Kriemhild's hand in marriage, and she reluctantly agrees. Thirteen years after her arrival in Etzel's kingdom, she convinces Etzel to invite her brothers to a feast. Gunther agrees and the Burgundians and their vassals arrive at Etzel's court. Kriemhild greets her brothers but mockingly asks Hagen whether he has brought her what he stole at Worms. Later, Kriemhild confronts Hagen with a group of Huns, and Hagen provokes her by bragging that he killed Siegfried. None of the Huns is brave enough to attack, and the Burgundians prevent an attack that Kriemhild had planned for that night. The next day, Kriemhild convinces Etzel's brother Bloedelin to attack the Burgundians' supplies; this occurs while Etzel, Kriemhild, and their son [[Ortlieb (Germanic heroic legend )|Ortlieb]] are seated in the hall with Burgundians. Upon hearing of the attack, Hagen decapitates the Hunnish prince. Fighting erupts, but [[Dietrich von Bern]] arranges for Kriemhild and Etzel to leave the hall. Kriemhild later demands that Gunther surrender Hagen to her, but he refuses: she then has the hall set on fire. Eventually, Dietrich von Bern captures Gunther and Hagen as the last survivors in the hall, handing them over to Kriemhild. Kriemhild separates the two and demands that Hagen give back to her what he has taken from her. Hagen says he cannot tell her where the hoard is as long as his lord Gunther lives; Kriemhild then has Gunther decapitated. Hagen then reveals that the hoard is in the Rhine; Kriemhild takes Siegfried's sword, which Hagen had stolen, and beheads him with it herself. Dietrich's mentor [[Hildebrand]], outraged that a woman has killed a great warrior, then hacks Kriemhild to pieces.{{sfn|Millet|2008|pp=184–185}}

===''Nibelungenklage''===
Although Kriemhild does not appear as a living character in the ''[[Nibelungenklage]]'', the sequel to the ''Nibelungenlied'', the poem nevertheless goes to great lengths to absolve her of blame for the catastrophe of the ''Nibelungenlied''. According to the ''Nibelungenklage'', Kriemhild was acting out of true love for Siegfried and the true treachery was that of Hagen.{{sfn|Lienert|2015|pp=62–63}} This is underlined by having Hildebrand specifically blame Hagen for the disaster, calling him a ''vâlant'' (fiend), the male counterpart to the accusation that Kriemhild is a ''vâlandinne'' (fiend).{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=62}}

=== ''Þiðrekssaga'' ===
Although the ''[[Þiðrekssaga]]'' (c. 1250) is written in Old Norse, the majority of the material is translated from German (particularly [[Low German]]) oral tales, as well as possibly some from German written sources such as the ''Nibelungenlied''.{{sfn|Millet|2008|pp=270–273}} Therefore, it is included here.

In the ''Thidrekssaga'', Grimhild (Kriemhild) is the daughter of king Aldrian of Niflungaland and Oda, sister of king Gunnar (Gunther), Gisler (Giselher), and Gernoz (Gernot), and half sister of Högni (Hagen).{{sfn|Gillespie|1973|p=20, 52, 59}} When Sigurd (Siegfried) comes to Gunnar's kingdom one day, he marries Grimhild and suggests that Gunnar marry Brunhild. Some time later, Grimhild and Brunhild argue over precedent in the king's hall. Brunhild accuses Grimhild of not even being married to a man of noble birth, whereupon Grimhild reveals that Sigurd and not Gunnar took Brunhild's virginity, showing a ring that Sigurd had given her as proof. Brunhild then agitates for Sigurd's murder; once Grimhild's brothers have murdered Sigurd, they place his corpse in her bed.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=264, 266}}{{sfn|Haymes|Samples|1996|p=114}}

Some time later, Atli (Etzel) woos Grimhild to be his new wife. Seven years later Grimhild convinces Atli to invite the Burgundians (called Niflungs) to visit her by mentioning the hoard of the Nibelungen which her brothers had stolen from her. Atli is seized by greed for the hoard and agrees. Once the Burgundians arrive, Grimhild demands the hoard from them, but Högni replies that it was left behind. Grimhild attempts to convince Atli's brother Bloedel and Thidrek (Dietrich von Bern) to help her take revenge, but both refuse. Finally, she provokes a fight by bringing her and Atli's son into the hall, seating him across from Högni, and telling the son to hit Högni. Högni reacts to a second blow by cutting off the prince's head, leading to a terrible massacre. After severe fighting, Gunnar is captured, and Grimhild tells Atli to throw him in a tower full of snakes. Högni now leads the Burgundians, who lock themselves in the king's hall. Grimhild orders the hall set on fire, and in the following battle Gisler and Gernoz die. Grimhild sticks a piece of flaming wood into her dead brothers' mouths to see if they are dead, causing an enraged Thidrek to kill her.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=267}}{{sfn|Haymes|Samples|1996|pp=118–119}}

The author of the saga has made a number of changes to create a more or less coherent story out of the many oral and possibly written sources that he used to create the saga.{{sfn|Millet|2008|pp=273–274}} The author mentions alternative Scandinavian versions of many of these same tales, and appears to have changed some details to match the stories known by his Scandinavian audience.{{sfn|Millet|2008|pp=271-272}}{{sfn|Haymes|1988|pp=xxvii-xxix}} The saga's version of the downfall of the Burgundians represents a unique mix of elements known from the Norse and continental traditions.{{sfn|Uecker|1972|p=42}}

===''Rosengarten zu Worms''===
[[File:Berliner rosengartenspiel sw.jpg|thumb|Dietleib and Walther both receive a garland of roses from Kriemhild. Image from a text of the Berlin ''Rosengarten'' play, SB Berlin mgf 800, Bl. 2v.]]
In the ''[[Rosengarten zu Worms]]'' (c. 1250), Kriemhild is the daughter of king Gibeche. She possesses a rose garden that is guarded by twelve heroes, including her fiancé, Siegfried. Desiring to see whether Siegfried can beat Dietrich von Bern in combat, she challenges Dietrich to bring twelve of his own heroes for a day of tournaments in the rose garden. The winner will receive a garland and a kiss from her as a reward. Dietrich accepts the challenge, and the heroes come to Worms. Eventually, all of the Burgundian heroes are defeated, including Siegfried, who flees to Kriemhild's lap in fear when Dietrich starts breathing fire. Dietrich's warrior Ilsan, a monk, punishes Kriemhild for her haughtiness in challenging Dietrich by demanding so many kisses from Kriemhild that his rough beard causes her face to bleed. In one version of the poem, Hagen curses Kriemhild for having provoked the combat.{{sfn|Millet|2008|pp=361–363}}

The poem takes a highly critical judgment of Kriemhild. As in the A and B versions of the ''Nibelungenlied'', she is called a ''vâlandinne'' (fiend) and she derives great joy from watching the knights fight in at times brutal combat.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=366}}{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=136}}

The name of Kriemhild's father, Gibeche, corresponds to Gjúki in the Scandinavian tradition, and is also found in the ''Lied vom Hürnen Seyfrid'' and Heldenbuch-Prosa (see below); this shows the ''Rosengarten's'' connection to an oral tradition outside of the ''Nibelungenlied'', despite the ''Rosengarten's'' obvious knowledge of the earlier poem.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=364}}

===Heldenbuch-Prosa===
The [[Heldenbuch#The "Heldenbuch-Prosa"|Heldenbuch-Prosa]], first found in the 1480 [[Heldenbuch]] of Diebolt von Hanowe and afterwards contained in printings until 1590, is considered one of the most important attestations of a continued oral tradition outside of the ''Nibelungenlied'', with many details agreeing with the ''Thidrekssaga''.{{sfn|Gentry|McConnell|Müller|Wunderlich|2011|pp=186–187}}

In the Heldenbuch-Prosa, Kriemhild is the daughter of king Gibeche and married to Siegfried. She arranges for the disaster at Etzel's hall in order to take vengeance on Dietrich von Bern for having killed Siegfried in the rose garden. She provokes the fighting by having her and Etzel's son brought into the hall and having the child provoke Hagen, who kills him. This leads to an outbreak of hostilities in which many heroes die. When Dietrich takes Gunther and Hagen prisoner, she cuts off their heads, causing Dietrich to cut her to pieces.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=428}}{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=167–168}}{{sfn|Gillespie|1973|p=19}}

===''Das Lied vom Hürnen Seyfrid''===
[[File:Siegfried 8.gif|thumb|The dragon lays its head in Kriemhild's lap. Woodcut for an early modern printing of ''Das Lied vom Hürnen Seyfrid'']]
In the late medieval/early modern heroic ballad ''[[Das Lied vom Hürnen Seyfrid]]'', Kriemhild is the daughter of king Gybich and sister of Gunther, Gyrnot (Gernot), and Hagen. The name Gybich agrees with the ''Rosengarten zu Worms'' and corresponds to the Old Norse Gjúki, and the fact that Hagen is one of Kriemhild's brothers accords with the ''Thidrekssaga'' and the Scandinavian tradition as well.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=469}} This is taken as evidence that these elements of the tradition existed in oral story-telling into the late Middle Ages.{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=67}}

In the middle of the ballad, a dragon abducts Kriemhild from her home in Worms. The dragon holds Kriemhild captive for years in his lair of mount Trachenstein (dragon stone), treating her well. One day it lays its head in her lap and transforms into a man, explaining that she needs to stay with him for five years. After that time he will marry her and they will travel to hell together. Kriemhild prays to avoid this fate. Finally, Siegfried (Seyfrid) arrives to save her, but the dragon appears. The dragon forces Siegfried and Kriemhild to flee into the depths of the mountain, where they find the treasure of the Nibelungen and a sword that can cut through the dragon's skin. Siegfried defeats the dragon, and Kriemhild and Siegfried return to Worms, where they are married and Siegfried rules together with Kriemhild's brothers. Her brothers, however, resent how powerful Siegfried has become and after seven years, they murder him.{{sfn|Millet|2008|pp=467–469}}{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=68}}

It has been suggested that Siegfried's liberation of Kriemhild may be a repurposing of a lost German story about [[Brunhild]],{{sfn|Gentry|McConnell|Müller|Wunderlich|2011|p=169}} though this is far from certain.{{sfn|Gillespie|1973|p=16 n. 8}} The ''Nibelungenlied'' version m includes a version of Siegfried's freeing of Kriemhild from a dragon, meaning the legend developed by 1400.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=467}} The earliest surviving copy of the ballad itself is from 1530.{{sfn|Lienert|2015|p=67}}

===Other traditions and attestations===
The ninth-century anonymous Saxon poet known as [[Poeta Saxo]] records that Attila's wife killed him to avenge the death of her father.{{sfn|Uecker|1972|p=44}}

The Danish historian [[Saxo Grammaticus]] records in his ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' that a Saxon minstrel tried unsuccessfully to warn the Danish prince [[Canute Lavard]] of the betrayal of his cousin [[Magnus the Strong]] by singing of "the famous treachery of Grimhild against her brothers" (''notissimam Grimildae erga fratres perfidiam'').{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=138}}{{sfn|Uecker|1972|p=48}}

The phrase "Kriemhilden hôchzît" (Kriemhild's festival) is attested in other medieval German works to denote an especially bloody battle.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=231}}

In a song of the mid-thirteenth-century wandering lyric poet Der Marner, "whom Kriemhild betrayed" (''wen Kriemhilt verriet'') is mentioned as a popular story that the German courtly public enjoyed hearing, along with tales of Sigurd's death and the hoard of the Nibelungs.{{sfn|Millet|2008|p=2}}

The Hungarian chronicler [[Simon of Kéza]] (late thirteenth-century) records that Attila the Hun was killed by his wife Kriemhild.{{sfn|Müller|2009|p=20}}