Editing Gustave Eiffel (section)

== Eiffel et Cie ==
[[File:Budapest nyugati trams.jpg|thumb|The [[Budapest Nyugati railway station]]]]
At the end of 1866 Eiffel managed to borrow enough cash to set up his own workshops at 48 Rue Fouquet in [[Levallois-Perret]].<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 37</ref>  His first important commission was for two [[viaduct]]s for the railway line between [[Lyon]] and Bordeaux, and the company also began to undertake work in other countries, including [[St. Mark's Cathedral, Arica|St. Mark's Cathedral]] in [[Arica]], [[Peru]], which was an all-metal prefabricated building, manufactured in France and shipped to South America in pieces to be assembled on site; first it was intended for the city of [[Ancón District|Ancón]], a beach near [[Lima]], but the Peruvian Government of President [[Jose Balta|José Balta]] changed the final destination to Arica because the old church was destroyed by an [[1868 Arica earthquake|earthquake on 13 August 1868]]. Because of this, a committee of ladies of Arica asked Balta to relocate Eiffel's structure to Arica.

On 6 October 1868 he entered into partnership with [[Théophile Seyrig]], a fellow graduate of the École Centrale, forming the company Eiffel et Cie.
In 1875, Eiffel et Cie were given two important contracts, one for the [[Budapest Nyugati railway station]] for the [[Vienna]] to [[Budapest]] railway and the other for a bridge over the river [[Douro]] in Portugal.<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 57</ref>  The station in Budapest was an innovative design. The usual pattern for building a railway terminus was to conceal the metal structure behind an elaborate facade: Eiffel's design for Budapest used the metal structure as the centerpiece of the building, flanked on either side by conventional stone and brick-clad structures housing administrative offices.
[[File:Ponte Maria Pia - Porto.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Maria Pia Bridge]]]]
The bridge over the Douro came about as the result of a competition held by the Royal Portuguese Railroad Company. The task was a demanding one: the river was fast-flowing, up to {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep, and had a bed formed of a deep layer of gravel which made the construction of piers on the river bed impossible, and so the bridge had to have a central span of {{convert|160|m|ft|abbr=on}}. This was greater than the longest arch span which had been built at the time.<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 60</ref>
Eiffel's proposal was for a bridge whose deck was supported by five iron piers, with the abutments of the pair on the river bank also bearing a central supporting arch. The price quoted by Eiffel was FF.965,000, far below the nearest competitor and so he was given the job, although since his company was less experienced than his rivals the Portuguese authorities appointed a committee to report on Eiffel et Cie's suitability. The members included Jean-Baptiste Krantz, Henri Dion and Léon Molinos, both of whom had known Eiffel for a long time: their report was favorable, and Eiffel got the job. On-site work began in January 1876 and was complete by the end of October 1877: the bridge was ceremonially opened by [[Luís I of Portugal|King Luís I]] and [[Maria Pia of Savoy|Queen Maria Pia]], after whom the bridge was named, on 4 November.

The [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|Exposition Universelle in 1878]] firmly established his reputation as one of the leading engineers of the time. As well as exhibiting models and drawings of work undertaken by the company, Eiffel was also responsible for the construction of several of the exhibition buildings.<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 71</ref> One of these, a pavilion for the Paris Gas Company, was Eiffel's first collaboration with [[Stephen Sauvestre]], who was later to become the head of the company's architectural office.

In 1879 the partnership with Seyrig was dissolved, and the company was renamed the '''Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel.'''<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 42</ref>
The same year the company was given the contract for the [[Garabit viaduct]], a railway bridge near [[Ruynes en Margeride]] in the [[Cantal]] département. Like the Douro bridge, the project involved a lengthy viaduct crossing the river valley as well as the river itself, and Eiffel was given the job without any process of competitive tendering due to his success with the bridge over the Douro.<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 77</ref>  To assist him in the work he took on several people who were to play important roles in the design and construction of the Eiffel Tower, including [[Maurice Koechlin]], a young graduate of the [[ETH Zurich|Zurich Polytechnikum]], who was engaged to undertake calculations and make drawings, and [[Émile Nouguier]], who had previously worked for Eiffel on the construction of the Douro bridge.

[[File:RahmenStatue1885.jpg|thumb|Interior structural elements of the Statue of Liberty designed by Gustave Eiffel]]
The same year Eiffel started work on a system of standardised prefabricated bridges, an idea that was the result of a conversation with the governor of [[French Cochinchina|Cochin-China]]. These used a small number of standard components, all small enough to be readily transportable in areas with poor or non-existent roads, and were joined using [[Screw|bolt]]s rather than [[rivet]]s, reducing the need for skilled labour on site. A number of different types were produced, ranging from footbridges to standard-gauge railway bridges.<ref>Loyrette 1985, pp. 42–47</ref>

In 1881 Eiffel was contacted by [[Auguste Bartholdi]] who was in need of an engineer to help him to realise the [[Statue of Liberty]]. Some work had already been carried out by [[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]], but he had died in 1879. Eiffel was selected because of his experience with wind stresses. Eiffel devised a structure consisting of a four legged pylon to support the copper sheeting which made up the body of the statue. The entire statue was erected at the Eiffel works in Paris before being dismantled and shipped to the United States.<ref>Harvie 2006, p. 70</ref>

In 1886 Eiffel also designed the dome for the [[Observatoire de Nice|Astronomical Observatory]] in Nice. This was the most important building in a complex designed by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], later among the most prominent critics of the Tower. The dome, with a diameter of {{convert|22.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}, was the largest in the world when built and used an ingenious bearing device: rather than running on wheels or rollers, it was supported by a ring-shaped hollow girder floating in a circular trough containing a solution of [[magnesium chloride]] in water. This had been patented by Eiffel in 1881.

=== The Eiffel Tower ===
{{main|Eiffel Tower}}
[[Image:Maurice koechlin pylone.jpg|thumb|Koechlin's first drawing for the Eiffel Tower. Note the sketched stack of buildings, with Notre Dame at the bottom, indicating the scale of the proposed tower.]]
The design of the Eiffel Tower was originated by Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier, who had discussed ideas for a centrepiece for the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)|1889 Exposition Universelle]]. In May 1884 Koechlin, working at his home, made an outline drawing of their scheme, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal [[trusse]]s at regular intervals".<ref>Harvie 2006, p78</ref>  Initially Eiffel showed little enthusiasm, although he did sanction further study of the project, and the two engineers then asked [[Stephen Sauvestre]] to add architectural embellishments. Sauvestre added the decorative arches to the base, a glass pavilion to the first level and the cupola at the top. The enhanced idea gained Eiffel's support for the project, and he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nougier and Sauvestre had taken out. The design was exhibited at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884, and on 30 March 1885 Eiffel read a paper on the project to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils. After discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying that the tower would symbolise<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 116</ref>{{blockquote|text="not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France's gratitude."}}
Little happened until the beginning of 1886, but with the re-election of [[Jules Grévy]] as president and his appointment of [[Edouard Lockroy]] as Minister for Trade decisions began to be made. A budget for the Exposition was passed and on 1 May Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition which was being held for a centerpiece for the exposition, which effectively made the choice of Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion: all entries had to include a study for a {{convert|300|m|ft|abbr=on}} four-sided metal tower on the [[Champ de Mars]]. On 12 May a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's scheme and its rivals and on 12 June it presented its decision, which was that only Eiffel's proposal met their requirements. After some debate about the exact site for the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, and granted him one and a half million francs toward the construction costs. This was less than a quarter of the estimated cost of six and a half million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation during the exhibition and for the following twenty years.<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 121</ref> Eiffel later established a separate company to manage the tower.

The tower had been a subject of some controversy, attracting criticism both from those who did not believe it feasible and from those who objected on artistic grounds. Just as work began at the Champ de Mars, the "Committee of Three Hundred" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]] and including some of the most important figures of the French arts establishment, including [[Adolphe Bouguereau]], [[Guy de Maupassant]], [[Charles Gounod]] and [[Jules Massenet]]: a petition was sent to [[Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand]], the Minister of Works, and was published by ''[[Le Temps (Paris)|Le Temps]]''.<ref>Harvie 2006, p. 95</ref> {{blockquote|text="To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk [[Notre Dame de Paris|Notre Dame]], the [[Tour Saint-Jacques]], the [[Louvre]], the Dome of [[les Invalides]], the [[Arc de Triomphe]], all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years ... we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal"}}
<gallery>
Image:Construction tour eiffel.JPG|18 July 1887
Image:Construction tour eiffel2.JPG|7 December 1887
Image:Construction tour eiffel3.JPG|20 March 1888
Image:Construction tour eiffel4.JPG|15 May 1888
Image:Construction tour eiffel5.JPG|21 August 1888
Image:Construction tour eiffel6.JPG|26 December 1888
Image:Construction tour eiffel8.JPG|March 1889
</gallery>

[[Image:Caricature Gustave Eiffel.png|thumb|right|Caricature of Eiffel, published 1887 in ''[[Le Temps]]'' at the time of "The Artist's Protest"]]
Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, each leg resting on four {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg but the other two, being closer to the river [[Seine]] were more complicated: each slab needed two [[deep foundation|piles]] installed by using compressed-air caissons {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter driven to a depth of {{convert|22|m|ft|abbr=on}}<ref>Loyrette 1985 p. 123</ref> to support the concrete slabs, which were {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} thick. Each of these slabs supported a [[limestone]] block, each with an inclined top to bear the supporting shoe for the ironwork. These shoes were anchored by bolts 10&nbsp;cm (4&nbsp;in) in diameter and {{convert|7.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} long.
Work on the foundations was complete by 30 June and the erection of the iron work was started. Although no more than 250 men were employed on the site, a prodigious amount of exacting preparatory work was entailed: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detail drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed.<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 148</ref> The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the positions of rivet holes were specified to within 0.1&nbsp;mm (0.004&nbsp;in) and angles worked out to one [[arcsecond|second of arc]]. The components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, were first bolted together, the bolts being replaced by rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit it was sent back to the factory for alteration. The four legs, each at an angle of 54° to the ground, were initially constructed as cantilevers, relying on the anchoring bolts in the masonry foundation blocks. Eiffel had calculated that this would be satisfactory until they approached halfway to the first level: accordingly work was stopped for the purpose of erecting a wooden supporting [[scaffold]]. This gave ammunition to his critics, and lurid headlines including "Eiffel Suicide!" and "Gustave Eiffel has gone mad: he has been confined in an Asylum" appeared in the popular press.<ref>Harvie 206, p. 110</ref> At this stage a small "creeper" [[crane (machine)|crane]] was installed in each leg, designed to move up the tower as construction progressed and making use of the guides for the [[elevator]]s which were to be fitted in each leg. After this brief pause erection of the metalwork continued, and the critical operation of linking the four legs was successfully completed by March 1888. In order to precisely align the legs so that the connecting girders could be put into place, a provision had been made to enable precise adjustments by placing [[Jack (device)#Hydraulic jack|hydraulic jack]]s in the footings for each of the girders making up the legs.

The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower. Since the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, Eiffel frequently stopping to make explanations of various features. Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including Nouguier, Compagnon, the President of the City Council and reporters from ''[[Le Figaro]]'' and ''[[Le Monde Illustré]]''  completed the climb. At 2.35 Eiffel hoisted a large [[Flag of France|tricolour]], to the accompaniment of a 25-gun salute fired from the lower level.<ref>Harvie 2006 pp. 122–3</ref>

=== The Panama Scandal ===
[[File:Eiffel-lock.png|thumb|Illustration of Eiffel's lock design from a contemporary magazine]]
In 1887, Eiffel became involved with the French effort to construct a [[Panama Canal|canal]] across the Panama Isthmus. The French Panama Canal Company, headed by [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]], had been attempting to build a sea-level canal, but came to the realization that this was impractical. The plan was changed to one using [[lock (water transport)|locks]], which Eiffel was contracted to design and build. The locks were on a large scale, most having a change of level of {{convert|11|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>Loyrette 1985, p. 193</ref> Eiffel had been working on the project for little more than a year when the company suspended payments of interest on 14 December 1888,<ref>{{cite news | date =15 December 1888|title=The Panama Canal Company |newspaper=The Times|issue= 32570|page=7 }}</ref> and shortly afterwards was put into [[liquidation]]. Eiffel's reputation was badly damaged when he was implicated in the financial and political scandal which followed. Although he was simply a contractor, he was charged along with the directors of the project with raising money under false pretenses and misappropriation of funds. On 9 February 1893, Eiffel was found guilty on the charge of misuse of funds and was fined 20,000 francs and sentenced to two years in prison,<ref>{{cite news | date =10 February 1893 |title=Heavy Sentences On The Panama Defendants|newspaper=The Times|issue= 33871|page=5 }}</ref> although he was acquitted on appeal.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060102020147/http: //www.tour-eiffel.fr/teiffel/uk/documentation/dossiers/page/gustave_eiffel.html Gustave Eiffel]. The official site of the Eiffel Tower.tour-eiffel. fr</ref> The later American-built canal used new lock designs (see [[History of the Panama Canal]]).

Shortly before the trial, Eiffel had announced his intention to resign from the Board of Directors of the Compagnie des Etablissements Eiffel and did so at a General Meeting held on 14 February, saying, "I have absolutely decided to abstain from any participation in any manufacturing business from now on, and so that no one can be misled and to make it most evident I intend to remain uninvolved with the establishments that bears my name, and insist that it be removed from the company's name."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gustaveeiffel.com/L_association/les_m_moires_.html |title=Historique des Etablissements Eiffel |publisher=Association des Descendants de Gustave Eiffel – gustaveeiffel. |language=fr |access-date=24 March 2012 |quote="Je suis absolument décidé de m'abstenir désormais d'une participation quelconque dans une affaire industrielle, et afin que personne ne puisse s'y tromper et pour marquer de la façon la plus manifeste que j'entends rester désormais absolument étranger à la gestion des établissements qui portent mon nom, je tiens expressément à ce que mon nom disparaisse de la désignation de la société." |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411060027/http://www.gustaveeiffel.com/L_association/les_m_moires_.html |archive-date=11 April 2008 }}</ref>  The company changed its name to '''La Société Constructions Levallois-Perret''', with Maurice Koechlin as managing director. The name was changed to the '''Anciens Etablissements Eiffel''' in 1937.<ref>Harvie 2006, p. 40</ref>