Editing Hadza language (section)

==Phonology==
Hadza syllable structure is limited to CV, or CVN if nasal vowels are analyzed as a coda nasal. Vowel-initial syllables do not occur initially, and medially they may be equivalent to /hV/ – at least, no minimal pairs of /h/ vs zero are known.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

Hadza is noted for having medial clicks (clicks within morphemes). This distribution is also found in [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]] and the [[Nguni languages|Nguni Bantu languages]], but not in the Khoisan languages of southern Africa. Some of these words are historically derivable from clicks in initial positions (many appear to reflect lexicalized reduplication, for example, and some are due to prefixes), but others are opaque. As in Sandawe, most medial clicks are glottalized, but not all: ''puche'' 'a spleen', ''tanche'' 'to aim', ''tacce'' 'a belt', ''minca'' 'to lick one's lips', ''laqo'' 'to trip someone', ''keqhe-na'' 'slow', ''penqhenqhe ~ peqeqhe'' 'to hurry', ''haqqa-ko'' 'a stone', ''shenqe'' 'to peer over', ''exekeke'' 'to listen', ''naxhi'' 'to be crowded', ''khaxxe'' 'to jump', ''binxo'' 'to carry kills under one's belt'.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

===Tone===
Neither lexical [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] nor [[pitch accent]] has been demonstrated for Hadza. There are no known lexical [[minimal pair]]s or grammatical use of stress/tone.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

===Vowels===
Hadza has five vowels, {{IPA|[i e a o u]}}. Long vowels may occur when intervocalic {{IPA|[ɦ]}} is elided. For example, {{IPA|[kʰaɦa]}} or {{IPA|[kʰaː]}} 'to climb', but some words are not attested with {{IPA|[ɦ]}}, as {{IPA|[boːko]}} 'she' vs {{IPA|[boko]}} 'to be ill'. All vowels are nasalized before glottalized nasal and voiced nasal clicks, and speakers vary on whether they hear them as nasal vowels or as VN sequences. Invariable [[nasal vowel]]s, although uncommon, do occur, though not before consonants that have a place of articulation to assimilate to. In such positions, {{IPA|[CṼCV]}} and {{IPA|[CVNCV]}} are allophones, but since VN cannot occur at the end of a word or before a glottal consonant, where only nasal vowels are found, it may be that nasal vowels are allophonic with VN in all positions.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

===Consonants===
Consonants in shaded cells appear only in loanwords or are NC sequences, which do not appear to be single segments but are listed here to illustrate the orthography. (Not illustrated are nasal–click sequences in the middle of words: aspirated ''nch, nqh, nxh'' and tenuis ''ngc, ngq, ngx''.)
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Hadza consonants and orthography.<ref>Consonants in shaded cells appear only in loanwords or are NC sequences, which do not appear to be single segments but are listed here to illustrate the orthography. (Not illustrated are nasal–click sequences in the middle of words: aspirated ''nch, nqh, nxh'' and tenuis ''ngc, ngq, ngx''.)</ref>
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | [[labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan=2 | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]~[[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
! colspan=2 | [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]~[[Palatal consonant|palatal]]
! colspan=2 | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- class=small
! [[Central consonant|central]]
! [[Lateral consonant|lateral]]
! central
! lateral
! plain
! [[Labialization|labialized]]
|-
! rowspan=4 | [[Click consonant|Click]]
! <small>Aspirated</small>
| 
| {{IPA link|ᵏǀʰ}} {{angbr|ch}}
|
| {{IPA link|ᵏǃʰ}} {{angbr|qh}}
| {{IPA link|ᵏǁʰ}} {{angbr|xh}}
|
|
|
|-
! <small>Tenuis</small>
| 
| {{IPA link|ᵏǀ}} {{angbr|c}}
|
| {{IPA link|ᵏǃ}} {{angbr|q}}
| {{IPA link|ᵏǁ}} {{angbr|x}}
|
|
|
|-
! <small>[[Nasal click|Nasal]]</small>
|rowspan=2| ([[Nasal bilabial click|{{IPA|ᵑʘʷ<br />~ ᵑʘ͡ʔ|cat=no}}]]<br />{{angbr|mcw}})<sup>1</sup>
| {{IPA link|ᵑǀ}} {{angbr|nc}}
|
| {{IPA link|ᵑǃ}} {{angbr|nq}}
| {{IPA link|ᵑǁ}} {{angbr|nx}}
|
|
|
|-
! <small>[[glottalized click|Glottalized nasal]]</small><sup>1</sup>
| {{IPA link|ᵑǀ͡ʔ}} {{angbr|cc}}
|
| {{IPA link|ᵑǃ͡ʔ}} {{angbr|qq}}
| {{IPA link|ᵑǁ͡ʔ}} {{angbr|xx}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=7 | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʰ}} {{angbr|ph}}
| {{IPA link|tʰ}} {{angbr|th}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|kʰ}} {{angbr|kh}}
| {{IPA link|kʷʰ}} {{angbr|khw}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Tenuis consonant|Tenuis]]</small>
| {{IPA link|p}} {{angbr|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}} {{angbr|t}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|k}} {{angbr|k}}
| {{IPA link|kʷ}} {{angbr|kw}}
| {{IPA link|ʔ}} {{angbr|–}}
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}} {{angbr|b}}
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|d}} {{angbr|d}}
|
|
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ɡ}} {{angbr|g}}
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ɡʷ}} {{angbr|gw}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Ejective consonant|Ejective]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʼ}} {{angbr|bb}}<sup>2</sup>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! <small>Aspirated [[Prenasalized consonant|prenasalized]]</small>
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ᵐpʰ}} {{angbr|mp}}
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ⁿtʰ}} {{angbr|nt}}
|
|
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ᵑkʰ}} {{angbr|nk}}
|
|
|-
! <small>Tenuis prenasalized</small>
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ᵐp}} {{angbr|mb}}
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ⁿt}} {{angbr|nd}}
|
|
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ᵑk}} {{angbr|ng}}
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ᵑkʷ}} {{angbr|ngw}}
|
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}} {{angbr|n}}
|
| style="background: silver" |  {{IPA link|ɲ}} {{angbr|ny}}
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ŋ}} {{angbr|ngʼ}}
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ŋʷ}} {{angbr|ngʼw}}
|
|-
! rowspan=6 | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! <small>Aspirated</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t͜sʰ}} {{angbr|tsh}}
|
| {{IPA link|t͜ʃʰ}} {{angbr|tch}}
| {{IPA link|c͜𝼆ʰ}} {{angbr|tlh}}<sup>3</sup>
|
| 
|
|-
! <small>Tenuis</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t͜s}} {{angbr|ts}}
|
| {{IPA link|t͜ʃ}} {{angbr|tc}}
| {{IPA link|c𝼆}} {{angbr|tl}}<sup>3</sup>
|
|
|
|-
! <small>Voiced</small>
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|d͜z}} {{angbr|z}}
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|d͜ʒ}} {{angbr|j}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! <small>Ejective</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t͜sʼ}} {{angbr|zz}}
|
| {{IPA link|t͜ʃʼ}} {{angbr|jj}}
| [[Ejective palatal lateral affricate|{{IPA|c𝼆ʼ|cat=no}}]] {{angbr|dl}}<sup>3</sup>
| {{IPA link|k͜xʼ}} {{angbr|gg}}<sup>4</sup>
| {{IPA link|k͜xʷʼ}} {{angbr|ggw}}
|
|-
! <small>Aspirated prenasalized</small>
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ⁿt͜sʰ}} {{angbr|nts/ns}}
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ⁿt͜ʃʰ}} {{angbr|ntc}} 
|
|
|
|
|-
! <small>Tenuis prenasalized</small>
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ⁿt͜s}} {{angbr|nz}}
|
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|ⁿt͜ʃ}} {{angbr|nj}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| style="background: silver" | {{IPA link|fʷ}} {{angbr|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}} {{angbr|s}}
| {{IPA link|ɬ}} {{angbr|sl}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr|sh}}
|
| {{nobreak|({{IPA link|x}} {{angbr|hh}})<sup>6</sup>}}
|
|
|-
! colspan=2 | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
| colspan=2 | {{IPA link|ɾ}} ~ {{IPA link|l}} {{angbr|l, r}}<sup>5</sup>
| ({{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|y}})<sup>7</sup>
|
|
| ({{IPA link|w}} {{angbr|w}})<sup>7</sup>
| {{IPA link|ɦ}} {{angbr|h}}<sup>7</sup>
|}

#The nasalization of the [[glottalization|glottalized]] nasal clicks is apparent on preceding vowels, but not during the hold of the click itself, which is silent due to simultaneous glottal closure. The labial {{IPA|[ᵑʘ͡ʔ]}} (or {{IPA|[ᵑʘʷ]}}) is found in a single mimetic word where it alternates with {{IPA|[ᵑǀ]}}.
#The labial ejective {{IPA|/pʼ/}} is only found in a few words.
#The palatal affricates may be pronounced with an alveolar onset ({{IPA|/t͜𝼆/}} ''etc.''), but this is not required.
#The velar ejective {{IPA|/k͜xʼ/}} varies between a plosive {{IPA|[kʼ]}}, a central affricate {{IPA|[k͜xʼ]}}, a lateral affricate {{IPA|[k͜𝼄ʼ]}}, and a fricative {{IPA|[xʼ]}}. The other central ejective affricates can surface as ejective fricatives as well (i.e. {{IPA|[sʼ], [ʃʼ], [xʷʼ]}}).
#The lateral approximant {{IPA|/l/}} is found as a [[flap consonant|flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} between vowels and occasionally elsewhere, especially in rapid speech. {{IPA|[l]}} is most common [[post-pausa]] and in repeated syllables (e.g. in ''lola'', sp. rabbit). A lateral flap realization {{IPA|[ɺ]}} can also occur. 
#The [[voiceless velar fricative]] {{IPA|[x]}} is known from only a single word, where it alternates with {{IPA|/kʰ/}}.
#{{IPA|[ɦ]}} and [[zero onset]] appear to be allophones. {{IPA|[w, j]}} may be allophones of {{IPA|[u, i]}}, and what are often transcribed in the literature as {{IPA|[w]}} next to a back vowel or {{IPA|[j]}} next to a front vowel (e.g. the msg [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] transcribed ''-a, -ha, -wa, -ya'') are nothing more than transitions between vowels.
#The NC sequences only occur in word-initial position in loanwords. The voiced obstruents and nasal consonants {{IPA|/ɲ ŋ ŋʷ d ɡ ɡʷ dʒ/}} and perhaps {{IPA|/dz/}} (on darker background) also seem to have been borrowed.{{sfn|Elderkin|1978}}

===Orthography===
A practical orthography has been devised by Miller and Anyawire.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Miller|Anyawire|Bala|Sands|2013}}</ref> As of 2015, this orthography is not being used by any Hadza speakers and is therefore of limited value for communication in Hadza. It is broadly similar to the orthographies of neighboring languages such as Swahili, [[Isanzu language|Isanzu]], [[Iraqw language|Iraqw]], and [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]]. The apostrophe, which is ubiquitous in transcription in the anthropological literature but causes problems with literacy, is not used: Glottal stop is indicated by vowel sequences (that is, {{IPA|/beʔe/}} is written {{angle bracket|bee}}, as in {{angle bracket|Hazabee}} {{IPA|/ɦadzabeʔe/}} 'the Hadza'), which true vowel sequences are separated by ''y'' or ''w'' (that is, {{IPA|/pie/}} 'two' is written {{angle bracket|piye}}), though in some cases an ''h'' may be justified, and ejectives and glottalized clicks by gemination (apart from reduced {{angle bracket|dl}} instead of *ddl for {{IPA|/c𝼆ʼ/}}). The ejectives are based on the voiced consonants, {{angle bracket|bb zz jj dl gg ggw}}, because these are otherwise found mostly in borrowings and thus not common. ''Tc'' {{IPA|/tʃ/}} and ''tch'' {{IPA|/tʃʰ/}} are as in Sandawe, ''sl'' {{IPA|/ɬ/}} as in Iraqw. (This is ultimately a French convention.) Nasalized vowels / VN rimes are {{angle bracket|an en in un}}. Long vowels are {{angle bracket|â}}, or {{angle bracket|aha}} where they are due to an elided {{IPA|/ɦ/}}. A tonic syllable may be written with an acute accent, {{angle bracket|á}}, but is generally not marked.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}