Editing Human zoo (section)

== Start of human exhibits ==
[[File:Friedländer.plakat.7.jpg|thumb|Ad for an 1893–1894 ethnological exposition of [[Sami people|Sámi]] in Hamburg-Saint Paul]]
	
[[File:Congolese village at 1897 Brussels International Exposition (Alphonse Gautier).png|thumb|Congolese village at 1897 Brussels International Exposition (Alphonse Gautier)]]
	
In the 1870s, exhibitions of so-called "exotic populations" became popular throughout the western world.<ref name="Abbattista 2014">{{Cite book |last=Abbattista |first=Guido |title=Moving bodies, displaying nations : national cultures, race and gender in world expositions : Nineteenth to Twenty-first century |publisher=EUT |year=2014 |isbn=978-8883035821 |location=Trieste |oclc=898024184}}</ref> Human zoos could be seen in many of Europe's largest cities, such as Paris, Hamburg, London, and [[Milan]], as well as American cities such as New York City and Chicago.<ref name="Abbattista 2014"/> [[Carl Hagenbeck]], an animal trader, was one of the early proponents of this trend, when in 1874, at the suggestion of [[Heinrich Leutemann]], he decided to exhibit [[Sami people]] with the 'Laplander Exhibition'.<ref name="ieg-ego.eu"/> What differentiated Hagenbeck's exhibit from others, was the fact that he showed these people, with animals and plants, to "re-create", their "natural environment."<ref name="ieg-ego.eu"/> He sold people the feeling of having travelled to these areas by witnessing his exhibits.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Human zoos: When people were the exhibits |date=3 October 2017|url=https://www.dw.com/en/human-zoos-when-people-were-the-exhibits/a-37748193|access-date=2020-12-02|publisher=Deutsche Welle|language=en-GB|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907142026/https://www.dw.com/en/human-zoos-when-people-were-the-exhibits/a-37748193|url-status=live}}</ref> These exhibits were a massive success, and only became larger and more elaborate.<ref name=":2"/> From this point forward human exhibitions would lean towards stereotyping, and projecting western superiority.<ref name="ieg-ego.eu"/> Greater feeding into the [[Imperialism|Imperialist]] narrative, that these people's culture merited subjugation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=European imperialism, 1830–1930: climax and contradiction |last1=Conklin |first1=Alice L. |last2=Fletcher |first2=Ian Christopher |year=1999 |isbn=0395903858 |location=Boston |oclc=41211098}}</ref> It also promoted [[scientific racism]], where they were classified as more or less 'civilized' on a scale, from great apes to western Europeans.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lewis|first1=R. Barry |title=Understanding humans: introduction to physical anthropology and archaeology |date=2010 |publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning |last2=Jurmain |first2=Robert |last3=Kilgore |first3=Lynn |isbn=978-0495604174 |edition=10th |location=Belmont, CA |oclc=276822759}}</ref>

Hagenbeck would go on to launch a Nubian Exhibit in 1876, and an Inuit exhibit in 1880.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NXgMAQAAMAAJ|title=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|date=1985|publisher=Africana Publishing Company|language=en|access-date=14 November 2020|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415134205/https://books.google.com/books?id=NXgMAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> These were also massively successful.

Aside from Hagenbeck, the [[Jardin d'Acclimatation]] was also a hotspot of ethnological exhibits. Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, director of the Jardin d'Acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organize two ethnological exhibits that also presented [[Nubians]] and [[Inuit]]. That year, the audience of the Jardin d'acclimatation' doubled to one million. Between 1877 and 1912, approximately thirty ethnological exhibitions were presented at the ''Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation''.<ref name="human_zoo">{{Cite web|url=http://www.usd116.org/ProfDev/AHTC/lessons/GoerssFel10/Lessons/Lesson3/TheHumanZoo.pdf|title=The Human Zoo: Science's Dirty Secret|work=usd116.org|publisher=Channel Four Television Corporation|page=2|year=2009|access-date=6 February 2011|archive-date=24 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724135500/http://www.usd116.org/ProfDev/AHTC/lessons/GoerssFel10/Lessons/Lesson3/TheHumanZoo.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

These displays were so successful they were incorporated into both the [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|1878]] and the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)|1889 Parisian World's Fair]], which presented a 'Negro Village'. Visited by 28 million people, the 1889 World's Fair displayed 400 indigenous people as the major attraction.

In Amsterdam the [[Internationale Koloniale en Uitvoerhandel Tentoonstelling|International Colonial and Export Exhibition]] had a display of people native to [[Suriname]], in 1883.

In 1886, the Spanish displayed natives of the [[Philippines]] in an exhibition, as people whom they "civilized". This event added flame to the 1896 Philippine revolution.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=42633263 |title = The Enlightenment and the Philippine Revolution |last1 = Arcilla |first1 = Jose S. |journal = Philippine Studies |year = 1991 |volume = 39 |issue = 3 |pages = 358–373}}</ref> Queen Consort of Spain, Maria Cristina of Austria, afterwards institutionalized the business of human zoos. By 1887, indigenous Igorot people & animals were sent to Madrid and were exhibited in a human zoo at the newly constructed [[Palacio de Cristal del Retiro]].<ref>Limos, M. A. (2020). The Story Behind Spain's Infamous Zoo That Featured Philippine Animals... And Then Filipinos. Esquire Publications.</ref>

At both the 1893 [[World's Columbian Exposition]] and the 1901 [[Pan-American Exposition]]<ref>See [[Charles Dudley Arnold]]'s [http://www.pdphotoblog.com/category/native-american photo] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705021556/http://www.pdphotoblog.com/category/native-american|date=5 July 2008}} similar human displays had been seen of six men dressed in Native-American costume, in front and on top of a reconstruction of a Six-Nations Long House.</ref> [[Little Egypt (dancer)|Little Egypt]], a bellydancer, was photographed as a catalogued "type" by Charles Dudley Arnold and Harlow Higginbotha.<ref>Anne Maxell, "Montrer l'Autre: Franz Boas et les soeurs Gerhard", in ''Zoos humains. De la Vénus hottentote aux reality shows'', Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard, Gilles Boëtsch, Eric Deroo, Sandrine Lemaire, edition La Découverte (2002), pp. 331–339, in part. p. 333,</ref>

At the [[1895 African Exhibition]] in [[The Crystal Palace]], around eighty people from [[Somalia]] were displayed in an "exotic" setting.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Victorian London – Entertainment and Recreation – Exhibitions – The African Exhibition |url=https://www.victorianlondon.org/entertainment2/africanexhibition.htm |access-date=2022-03-20 |website=victorianlondon.org |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129153314/https://www.victorianlondon.org/entertainment2/africanexhibition.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Brussels International Exposition (1897)]] in Tervuren featured a "Congolese Village" that displayed African people in ersatz interpretations of native settings.

=== German ethnographs ===
Ethnology studies in Germany took a new approach in the 1870s as human displays were incorporated into zoos. These exhibits were lauded as 'educational' to the general population by the [[scientific community]]. Very quickly, the exhibits were used as a way to show that Europeans had "evolved" into a 'superior', 'cosmopolitan' life.<ref name="penny" />

In the late 19th century, German ethnographic museums were seen as an empirical study of human culture. They contained artifacts from cultures around the world organized by continent allowing visitors to see the similarities and differences between the groups and "form their own ideas".<ref name="penny">{{Cite book|last=Penny|first=H. Glenn |title=Objects of culture: ethnology and ethnographic museums in Imperial Germany |date=2002 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=0807862193 |location=Chapel Hill |oclc=55602080}}</ref>

=== Objectification in human zoos ===
Within the history of human zoos, there are patterns of overt sexual representation of displayed peoples, most frequently women. Such [[objectification]] often led to treatment that reflected a lack of privacy and respect, including the dissection and display of bodies after death without consent.

An example of the sexualization of ethnically diverse women in Europe is [[Sarah Baartman|Saartje Baartman]], often referred to as her anglicized name Sarah Bartmann. Bartmann was displayed both when she was alive throughout England and Ireland and after her death in the [[Musée de l'Homme]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last1=Lederman|first1=Muriel|last2=Bartsch|first2=Ingrid |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/44426765 |title=The gender and science reader |date=2001 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0415213576 |oclc=44426765}}</ref> While alive, she participated in a traveling show depicting her as a "savage female" with a large focus on her body. The clothes she was put in were tight and close to her skin color, and spectators were encouraged to "see for themselves" if Bartmann's body, particularly her buttocks, were real through "poking and pushing".<ref name=":22" /> Her living display was financially compensated but there is no record of her consenting to be examined and displayed after death.

Dominika Czarnecka theorizes on the relationship between the radicalization and sexualization of black female bodies in her journal article "Black Female Bodies and the 'White' View."<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last=Czarnecka |first=Dominika |date=9 November 2020 |title=Black Female Bodies and the "White" View |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.30965/18763308-04702006 |journal=East Central Europe |volume=47 |issue=2–3 |pages=285–312 |doi=10.30965/18763308-04702006 |s2cid=230653783 |issn=0094-3037|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Czarnecka focuses on ethnographic shows that were prominent in Polish territory in the late 19th century. She argues that an essential part of why these shows were so popular is the display of the black female body. Although the women in the shows were meant to be depicting Amazon warriors, their wardrobe was not similar to amazonian dress, and there are several documentations of comments from spectators about their revealing clothes and their bodies.<ref name=":32" />

Although women were most frequently objectified, there are a few instances of "exotic" men being displayed due to their favorable appearance. Angelo Solimann was brought to Italy as a slave from Central Africa in the 18th century, but ended up gaining a reputation in Viennese society for his fighting skills and vast knowledge about language and history. Upon his death in 1796, this positive association did not prevent his body being "stuffed and exhibited in the Viennese Natural History Museum" for almost a decade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kontler |first=László |date=9 November 2020 |title=Relocating the "Human Zoo": Exotic Displays, Metropolitan Identity, and Ethnographic Knowledge in Late Nineteenth-Century Budapest |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.30965/18763308-04702002 |journal=East Central Europe |volume=47 |issue=2–3 |pages=173–201 |doi=10.30965/18763308-04702002 |s2cid=230656558 |issn=0094-3037|url-access=subscription }}</ref>