Editing Intellectual (section)

=== "Intellectual" ===
The earliest record of the English noun "intellectual" is found in the 19th century, where in 1813, [[Byron]] reports that 'I wish I may be well enough to listen to these intellectuals'.<ref name="Collini">{{cite book|author-last=Collini| author-first=Stefan|title=Absent Minds. Intellectuals in Britain |date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0199291055}}</ref>{{rp|18}} Over the course of the 19th century, other variants of the already established adjective 'intellectual' as a noun appeared in English and in French, where in the 1890s the noun ({{Lang|fr|intellectuels}}) formed from the adjective {{Lang|fr|intellectuel}} appeared with higher frequency in the literature.<ref name="Collini"/>{{rp|20}}
Collini writes about this time that "[a]mong this cluster of linguistic experiments there occurred ... the occasional usage of 'intellectuals' as a plural noun to refer, usually with a figurative or ironic intent, to a collection of people who might be identified in terms of their intellectual inclinations or pretensions."<ref name="Collini"/>{{rp|20}}

In early 19th-century Britain, [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] coined the term ''clerisy'', the intellectual class responsible for upholding and maintaining the national culture, the secular equivalent of the Anglican clergy. Likewise, in [[Tsar]]ist Russia, there arose the ''[[intelligentsia]]'' (1860s–1870s), who were the [[Status group|status class]] of [[White-collar worker|white-collar]] workers. 
For Germany, the theologian [[Alister McGrath]] said that "the emergence of a socially alienated, [[theology|theologically]] literate, antiestablishment lay intelligentsia is one of the more significant phenomena of the social history of [[Germany]] in the 1830s".<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Kramer| author-first=Hilton|author-link=Hilton Kramer|title=The Twilight of the Intellectuals |date=1999|publisher=Ivan R. Dee|location=Chicago}}</ref>{{rp|53}} An intellectual class in Europe was socially important, especially to self-styled intellectuals, whose participation in society's arts, politics, journalism, and education—of either [[Nationalism|nationalist]], [[internationalism (politics)|internationalist]], or ethnic sentiment—constitute "vocation of the intellectual". Moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities (the academy) being synonymous with [[intellectualism]].{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

[[File:J’accuse.jpg|thumb|upright|The front page of ''[[L'Aurore]]'' (13 January 1898) featured [[Émile Zola]]'s open letter ''[[J'Accuse…!]]'' asking the French President [[Félix Faure]] to resolve the [[Dreyfus affair]].]]

In France, the [[Dreyfus affair]] (1894–1906), an identity crisis of [[antisemitism|antisemitic]] nationalism for the [[French Third Republic]] (1870–1940), marked the full emergence of the "intellectual in public life", especially [[Émile Zola]], [[Octave Mirbeau]] and [[Anatole France]] directly addressing the matter of French [[antisemitism]] to the public; thenceforward, "intellectual" became common, yet initially  derogatory, usage; its French noun usage is attributed to [[Georges Clemenceau]] in 1898. Nevertheless, by 1930 the term "intellectual" passed from its earlier pejorative associations and restricted usages to a widely accepted term and it was because of the Dreyfus Affair that the term also acquired generally accepted use in English.<ref name="Collini"/>{{rp|21}}

In the 20th century, the term intellectual acquired positive connotations of [[Reputation|social prestige]], derived from possessing [[intellectualism|intellect]] and [[intelligence]], especially when the intellectual's activities exerted positive consequences in the [[public sphere]] and so increased the intellectual understanding of the public, by means of [[Morality|moral]] responsibility, [[altruism]], and [[solidarity]], without resorting to the [[psychological manipulation|manipulations]] of [[demagoguery]], [[paternalism]] and [[incivility]] (condescension).<ref name="Williams1983"/>{{rp|169}} The sociologist [[Frank Furedi]] said that "Intellectuals are not defined according to the jobs they do, but [by] the manner in which they act, the way they see themselves, and the [social and political] values that they uphold.<ref Name="Furedi2004">{{cite book|author-last=Furedi| author-first=Frank|author-link=Frank Furedi|title=Where Have All The Intellectuals Gone? |date=2004|publisher=Continuum Press|location=London and New York}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=March 2021}}

According to [[Thomas Sowell]], as a descriptive term of person, personality, and profession, the word ''intellectual'' identifies three traits:
# Educated; erudition for developing theories;
# Productive; creates [[cultural capital]] in the fields of philosophy, [[literary criticism]], and [[sociology]], law, medicine, and science, etc.; and
# [[Artist]]ic; creates art in [[literature]], [[musical composition|music]], [[painting]], [[sculpture]], etc.<ref>{{cite book|title=Knowledge and Decisions|last=Sowell|first=Thomas|author-link=Thomas Sowell|year=1980|publisher=Basic Books}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=February 2021}}