Editing Intensive farming (section)

===Livestock===
{{main|Intensive animal farming}}

====Pasture intensification====
[[File:Cattle eating grass through barbed wire fence.jpg|thumb|Cow in [[Enclosure|enclosed]] [[pasture]] eating grass through wire fence]]

Pasture intensification is the improvement of [[pasture]] soils and grasses to increase the food production potential of livestock systems. It is commonly used to reverse pasture [[Land degradation|degradation]], a process characterized by loss of [[forage]] and decreased animal [[carrying capacity]] which results from [[overgrazing]], poor [[nutrient management]], and lack of [[soil conservation]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268445014|title=Degradação, recuperação e renovação de pastagens |last1=Zimmer |first1=Ademir |last2=Macedo|first2=Manuel|last3=Neivo Kichel |first3=Armindo |last4=Almeida |first4=Roberto|date=2012-11-01}}</ref> This degradation leads to poor pasture soils with decreased fertility and [[Soil water (retention)|water availability]] and increased rates of erosion, compaction, and [[Soil acidification|acidification]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=de Figueiredo|first1=Eduardo Barretto |last2=Jayasundara |first2=Susantha |last3=Bordonal |first3=Ricardo de Oliveira |last4=Berchielli|first4=Telma Teresinha |last5=Reis|first5=Ricardo Andrade |last6=Wagner-Riddle|first6=Claudia|last7=La Scala|first7=Newton Jr.|title=Greenhouse gas balance and carbon footprint of beef cattle in three contrasting pasture-management systems in Brazil |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=142 |pages=420–431 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.132|year=2017|bibcode=2017JCPro.142..420D |hdl=11449/177967 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Degraded pastures have significantly lower [[Agricultural productivity|productivity]] and higher [[carbon footprint]]s compared to intensified pastures.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1015344/indicativo-de-pastagens-plantadas-em-processo-de-degradacao-no-bioma-cerrado |title=Indicativo de pastagens plantadas em processo de degradação no bioma Cerrado |website=embrapa.br – Portal Embrapa |language=pt-BR |access-date=2018-03-28 |archive-date=2018-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615191647/https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1015344/indicativo-de-pastagens-plantadas-em-processo-de-degradacao-no-bioma-cerrado |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bogaerts |first1=Meghan |last2=Cirhigiri|first2=Lora |last3=Robinson |first3=Ian |last4=Rodkin |first4=Mikaela |last5=Hajjar|first5=Reem|last6=Junior|first6=Ciniro Costa |last7=Newton |first7=Peter |title=Climate change mitigation through intensified pasture management: Estimating greenhouse gas emissions on cattle farms in the Brazilian Amazon |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=162 |pages=1539–1550 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.06.130 |year=2017|doi-access=free |bibcode=2017JCPro.162.1539B }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Cardoso |first1=Abmael S. |last2=Berndt |first2=Alexandre |last3=Leytem |first3=April |last4=Alves |first4=Bruno J. R. |last5=Carvalho |first5=Isabel das N.O. de |last6=Soares |first6=Luis Henrique de Barros |last7=Urquiaga |first7=Segundo |last8=Boddey |first8=Robert M. |title=Impact of the intensification of beef production in Brazil on greenhouse gas emissions and land use |journal=Agricultural Systems |volume=143 |pages=86–96 |doi=10.1016/j.agsy.2015.12.007 |year=2016 |bibcode=2016AgSys.143...86C |url=http://eprints.nwisrl.ars.usda.gov/1679/1/1634.pdf |access-date=2018-12-24 |archive-date=2018-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225130127/https://eprints.nwisrl.ars.usda.gov/1679/1/1634.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Talamini |first1=Edson|last2=Ruviaro |first2=Clandio Favarini |last3=Florindo |first3=Thiago José|last4=Florindo|first4=Giovanna Isabelle Bom De Medeiros |title=Improving feed efficiency as a strategy to reduce beef carbon footprint in the Brazilian Midwest region |journal=International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development |language=en |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=379 |doi=10.1504/ijesd.2017.10007706 |year=2017}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Ruviaro |first1=Clandio F. |last2=Léis |first2=Cristiane Maria de |last3=Lampert |first3=Vinícius do N. |last4=Barcellos |first4=Júlio Otávio Jardim |last5=Dewes |first5=Homero |title=Carbon footprint in different beef production systems on a southern Brazilian farm: a case stud |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=96 |pages=435–443 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.037 |year=2015 |bibcode=2015JCPro..96..435R |hdl=10183/122628 |url=http://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/127004/1/JCPv96p435.pdf |access-date=2019-12-14 |archive-date=2019-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231170258/https://ainfo.cnptia.embrapa.br/digital/bitstream/item/127004/1/JCPv96p435.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Management practices which improve soil health and consequently [[Poaceae|grass]] productivity include [[irrigation]], soil scarification, and the application of [[Agricultural lime|lime]], fertilizers, and [[pesticide]]s. Depending on the productivity goals of the target agricultural system, more involved restoration projects can be undertaken to replace [[Invasive species|invasive]] and under-productive grasses with grass species that are better suited to the [[soil]] and [[climate]] conditions of the region.<ref name=":0" /> These intensified grass systems allow higher [[Livestock grazing comparison|stocking rates]] with faster animal weight gain and reduced time to slaughter, resulting in more productive, carbon-efficient [[livestock]] systems.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

Another technique to optimize [[Crop yield|yield]] while maintaining the [[Carbon cycle re-balancing|carbon balance]] is the use of integrated crop-livestock (ICL) and crop-livestock-forestry (ICLF) systems, which combine several ecosystems into one optimized agricultural framework.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277247305|title=Integrated systems: what they are, their advantages and limitations|last1=Balbino|first1=Luiz|last2=Neivo Kichel|first2=Armindo|last3=Bungenstab|first3=Davi|last4=Almeida|first4=Roberto|date=2014-03-01|isbn=9788570352972|pages=11–18}}</ref> Correctly performed, such production systems are able to create synergies potentially providing benefits to pastures through optimal plant usage, improved [[Fodder|feed]] and fattening rates, increased soil fertility and quality, intensified [[Nutrient cycle|nutrient cycling]], integrated [[pest control]], and improved [[biodiversity]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> The introduction of certain [[legume]] crops to pastures can increase [[Carbon sequestration|carbon accumulation]] and [[nitrogen fixation]] in soils, while their digestibility helps animal fattening and reduces [[methane emissions]] from [[enteric fermentation]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> ICLF systems yield beef cattle productivity up to ten times that of degraded pastures; additional crop production from [[maize]], [[sorghum]], and [[soybean]] harvests; and greatly reduced [[greenhouse gas]] balances due to forest carbon sequestration.<ref name=":3" />

In the Twelve Aprils grazing program for dairy production, developed by the [[USDA]]-[[Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education|SARE]], forage crops for dairy herds are planted into a [[perennial]] pasture.<ref>{{cite web|title=12 Aprils Dairy Grazing Manual|url=http://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/SARE-Project-Products/Southern-SARE-Project-Products/12-Aprils-Grazing-Dairy-Manual|publisher=USDA-SARE|access-date=1 October 2014|archive-date=6 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006153834/http://www.sare.org/Learning-Center/SARE-Project-Products/Southern-SARE-Project-Products/12-Aprils-Grazing-Dairy-Manual|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Rotational grazing====
{{Main|Managed intensive rotational grazing}}
[[File:NRCSMO02014 - Missouri (4753)(NRCS Photo Gallery).tif|thumb|[[Rotational grazing]] of cattle and sheep in [[Missouri]] with pasture divided into [[Paddock (field)|paddocks]], each grazed in turn for a short period and then rested]]

Rotational grazing<!--sometimes known as "management intensive rotational grazing",<ref name=PastProfit/>--> is a variety of foraging in which herds or flocks are regularly and systematically moved to fresh, rested grazing areas (sometimes called [[Paddock (field)|paddocks]]) to maximize the quality and quantity of forage growth. It can be used with cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, turkeys, ducks, and other animals. The herds graze one portion of pasture, or a paddock, while allowing the others to recover. Resting grazed lands allows the vegetation to renew energy reserves, rebuild shoot systems, and deepen root systems, resulting in long-term maximum [[biomass]] production.<ref name=PastProfit/><ref name=Manitoba/><ref>{{cite book |last=Beetz |first=A. E. |year=2004 |title=Rotational grazing: Livestock systems guide |publisher=National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service (ATTRA) }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Sanjari, G. |author2=Ghadiri, H. |author3=Ciesiolka, C. A. A. |author4=Yu, B. |date=2008 |title=Comparing the effects of continuous and time-controlled grazing systems on soil characteristics in Southeast Queensland |publisher=Soil Research 46 (CSIRO Publishing) |pages=48–358 |url=http://www98.griffith.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/10072/21586/52232_1.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=2014-10-01 |archive-date=2013-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927213634/http://www98.griffith.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/10072/21586/52232_1.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pasture systems alone can allow grazers to meet their energy requirements, but rotational grazing is especially effective because grazers thrive on the more tender younger plant stems. Parasites are also left behind to die off, minimizing or eliminating the need for de-wormers. With the increased productivity of rotational systems, the animals may need less supplemental feed than in continuous grazing systems. Farmers can therefore increase stocking rates.<ref name=PastProfit/><ref name="dx">{{cite journal |author1=Teague, W. R. |author2=Dowhowera, S. L. |author3=Bakera, S. A. |author4=Haileb, N. |author5=DeLaunea, P. B. |author6=Conovera, D. M. |title=Grazing management impacts on vegetation, soil biota and soil chemical, physical and hydrological properties in tall grass prairie |journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment |volume=141 |issue=3–4 |date=May 2011 |pages=310–322 |doi=10.1016/j.agee.2011.03.009|bibcode=2011AgEE..141..310T }}</ref>

==== Concentrated animal feeding operations ====
{{Main|Intensive animal farming}}
[[File:Florida chicken house.jpg|thumb|left|A commercial chicken house raising broiler pullets for meat]]

Intensive livestock farming or "factory farming", is the process of raising livestock in confinement at high stocking density.<ref>Sources discussing "intensive farming", "intensive agriculture" or "factory farming":
* Fraser, David. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0158e/a0158e00.HTM ''Animal welfare and the intensification of animal production: An alternative interpretation''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913214809/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0158e/a0158e00.htm |date=2011-09-13 }}, [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the [[United Nations]], 2005.
* Turner, Jacky. [http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm#TopOfPage "History of factory farming"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116060714/http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm |date=2013-11-16 }}, United Nations: "Fifty years ago in Europe, intensification of animal production was seen as the road to national food security and a better diet ... The intensive systems—called 'factory farms'—were characterised by confinement of the animals at high stocking density, often in barren and unnatural conditions."
* [[John Humphrys|Humphrys, John]]. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/foodmonthly/story/0,,475210,00.html Why the organic revolution had to happen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118163147/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/foodmonthly/story/0,,475210,00.html |date=2008-01-18 }}, ''[[The Observer]]'', April 21, 2001: "Nor is a return to 'primitive' farming practices the only alternative to factory farming and highly intensive agriculture."
* Baker, Stanley. [http://century.guardian.co.uk/1960-1969/Story/0,,105655,00.html "Factory farms – the only answer to our growing appetite?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106220300/http://century.guardian.co.uk/1960-1969/Story/0,,105655,00.html |date=2011-01-06 }}, ''[[The Guardian]]'', December 29, 1964: "Factory farming, whether we like it or not, has come to stay ... In a year which has been as uneventful on the husbandry side as it has been significant in economic and political developments touching the future of food procurement, the more far-seeing would name the growth of intensive farming as the major development." (Note: Stanley Baker was the Guardian's agriculture correspondent.)
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm "Head to head: Intensive farming"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222181507/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm |date=2009-02-22 }}, [[BBC News]], March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]] from the UK to the continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an [[Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (Germany)|Agriculture Minister]] from the [[Alliance '90/The Greens|Green Party]]. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."</ref><ref>Sources discussing "industrial farming", "industrial agriculture" and "factory farming":
* [http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y2772E/y2772e0c.htm "Annex 2. Permitted substances for the production of organic foods"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126040445/http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y2772E/y2772e0c.htm |date=2012-01-26 }}, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: "Factory farming" refers to industrial management systems that are heavily reliant on veterinary and feed inputs not permitted in organic agriculture.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm "Head to head: Intensive farming"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222181507/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm |date=2009-02-22 }}, BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."</ref><ref name="Kaufmann">Kaufmann, Mark. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/25/AR2007012501785.html "Largest Pork Processor to Phase Out Crates"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016115415/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/25/AR2007012501785.html |date=2011-10-16 }}, ''The Washington Post'', January 26, 2007.</ref><ref name="mc1">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1046184.stm "EU tackles BSE crisis"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711010659/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1046184.stm |date=2017-07-11 }}, BBC News, November 29, 2000.</ref><ref>"Is factory farming really cheaper?" in ''New Scientist'', Institution of
Electrical Engineers, New Science Publications, University of Michigan, 1971, p. 12.</ref> "[[Concentrated animal feeding operations]]" (CAFO), or "intensive livestock operations", can hold large numbers (some up to hundreds of thousands) of cows, hogs, turkeys, or chickens, often indoors. The essence of such farms is the concentration of livestock in a given space. The aim is to provide maximum output at the lowest possible cost and with the greatest level of food safety.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nierenberg |first=Danielle |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62104329 |title=Happier meals : rethinking the global meat industry |date=2005 |publisher=Worldwatch Institute |others=Lisa Mastny, Worldwatch Institute |isbn=1-878071-77-7 |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=62104329}}</ref> The term is often used pejoratively.<ref name="encyc-organic">{{cite book|last=Duram|first=Leslie A. |title=Encyclopedia of Organic, Sustainable, and Local Food|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35963-7|page=139}}</ref> CAFOs have dramatically increased the production of food from animal husbandry worldwide, both in terms of total food produced and efficiency.

Food and water is delivered to the animals, and therapeutic use of antimicrobial agents, vitamin supplements, and growth hormones are often employed. Growth hormones are not used on chickens nor on any animal in the [[European Union]]. Undesirable behaviors often related to the stress of confinement led to a search for docile breeds (e.g., with natural dominant behaviors bred out), physical restraints to stop interaction, such as individual cages for chickens, or physical modification such as the [[debeaking]] of chickens to reduce the harm of fighting.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Boeckel|first1=Thomas P.|last2=Brower|first2=Charles|last3=Gilbert|first3=Marius|last4=Grenfell|first4=Bryan T.|last5=Levin|first5=Simon A.|last6=Robinson|first6=Timothy P.|last7=Teillant|first7=Aude|last8=Laxminarayan|first8=Ramanan|date=2015-05-05|title=Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=112|issue=18|pages=5649–5654|doi=10.1073/pnas.1503141112|issn=0027-8424|pmc=4426470|pmid=25792457|bibcode=2015PNAS..112.5649V|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2023-04-23 |title=Intensive farming |url=https://tuoitho.edu.vn/intensive-farming-4ofbbz4p/ |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=tuoitho.edu.vn |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705180055/https://tuoitho.edu.vn/intensive-farming-4ofbbz4p/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The CAFO designation resulted from the 1972 U.S. [[Federal Clean Water Act]], which was enacted to protect and restore lakes and rivers to a "fishable, swimmable" quality. The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] identified certain animal feeding operations, along with many other types of industry, as "point source" [[groundwater]] polluters. These operations were subjected to regulation.<ref>Sweeten, John et al. [http://www.lpes.org/cafo/01FS_History.pdf "Fact Sheet #1: A Brief History and Background of the EPA CAFO Rule"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217125833/http://www.lpes.org/cafo/01FS_History.pdf |date=2008-12-17 }}. MidWest Plan Service, Iowa State University, July 2003.</ref>

[[File:Hog confinement barn interior.jpg|thumb|Intensively farmed pigs]]

In 17 states in the U.S., isolated cases of [[groundwater contamination]] were linked to CAFOs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sustainableagriculture.net/our-work/conservation-environment/clean-water-act/|title=CAFOs & Clean Water Act|access-date=2013-11-05|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105034639/http://sustainableagriculture.net/our-work/conservation-environment/clean-water-act/ |archive-date=2013-11-05}}</ref> The U.S. federal government acknowledges the [[waste disposal]] issue and requires that [[animal waste]] be stored in [[manure lagoon|lagoons]]. These lagoons can be as large as {{convert|7.5|acre|m2}}. Lagoons not protected with an impermeable liner can leak into groundwater under some conditions, as can runoff from manure used as fertilizer. A lagoon that burst in 1995 released 25 million gallons of nitrous sludge in North Carolina's [[New River (eastern North Carolina)|New River]]. The spill allegedly killed eight to ten million fish.<ref>Orlando, Laura. ''McFarms Go Wild'', ''Dollars and Sense'', July/August 1998, cited in Scully, Matthew. ''Dominion'', St. Martin's Griffin, p. 257.</ref>

The large concentration of animals, animal waste, and dead animals in a small space poses ethical issues to some consumers. [[Animal rights]] and [[animal welfare]] activists have charged that intensive animal rearing is cruel to animals.